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4
doc/00_optional.qbk
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@ -45,7 +45,7 @@ Distributed under the Boost Software License, Version 1.0.
[def __GO_TO__ [$images/callouts/R.png]]
[heading Introduction]
[section Introduction]
Class template `optional` is a wrapper for representing 'optional' (or 'nullable') objects who may not (yet) contain a valid value. Optional objects offer full value semantics; they are good for passing by value and usage inside STL containers. This is a header-only library.
[heading Problem]
@ -67,7 +67,7 @@ This is how you solve it with `boost::optional`:
runWithNoMax();
}
[endsect]
[include 01_quick_start.qbk]
[section Tutorial]

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@ -12,7 +12,7 @@
[section Quick Start]
[heading Optional return values]
[section Optional return values]
Let's write and use a converter function that converts an a `std::string` to an `int`. It is possible that for a given string (e.g. `"cat"`) there exist no value of type `int` capable of representing the conversion result. We do not consider such situation an error. We expect that the converter can be used only to check if the conversion is possible. A natural signature for this function can be:
@ -62,9 +62,9 @@ This uses the `atoi`-like approach to conversions: if `text` does not represent
Observe the two return statements. `return i` uses the converting constructor that can create `optional<T>` from `T`. Thus constructed optional object is initialized and its value is a copy of `i`. The other return statement uses another converting constructor from a special tag `boost::none`. It is used to indicate that we want to create an uninitialized optional object.
[/endsect]
[endsect]
[heading Optional automatic variables]
[section Optional automatic variables]
We could write function `convert` in a slightly different manner, so that it has a single `return`-statement:
@ -80,9 +80,9 @@ We could write function `convert` in a slightly different manner, so that it has
}
The default constructor of `optional` creates an unitialized optional object. Unlike with `int`s you cannot have an `optional<int>` in an indeterminate state. Its state is always well defined. Instruction `ans = i` initializes the optional object. It uses the assignment from `int`. In general, for `optional<T>`, when an assignment from `T` is invoked, it can do two things. If the optional object is not initialized our case here), it initializes it with `T`'s copy constructor. If the optional object is already initialized, it assigns the new value to it using `T`'s copy assignment.
[/endsect]
[endsect]
[heading Optional data members]
[section Optional data members]
Suppose we want to implement a ['lazy load] optimization. This is because we do not want to perform an expensive initialization of our `Resource` until (if at all) it is really used. We can do it this way:
@ -106,9 +106,9 @@ Suppose we want to implement a ['lazy load] optimization. This is because we do
[note Function `emplace` is only available on compilers that support rvalue references and variadic templates. If your compiler does not support these features and you still need to avoid any move-constructions, use [link boost_optional.tutorial.in_place_factories In-Place Factories].]
[/endsect]
[endsect]
[heading Bypassing unnecessary default construction]
[section Bypassing unnecessary default construction]
Suppose we have class `Date`, which does not have a default constructor: there is no good candidate for a default date. We have a function that returns two dates in form of a `boost::tuple`:
@ -125,9 +125,9 @@ The second line works already, this is the capability of Boost.Tuple library, bu
boost::tie(begin, end) = getPeriod();
It works because inside `boost::tie` a move-assignment from `T` is invoked on `optional<T>`, which internally calls a move-constructor of `T`.
[/endsect]
[endsect]
[heading Storage in containers]
[section Storage in containers]
Suppose you want to ask users to choose some number (an `int`). One of the valid responses is to choose nothing, which is represented by an uninitialized `optional<int>`. You want to make a histogram showing how many times each choice was made. You can use an `std::map`:
@ -139,7 +139,7 @@ Suppose you want to ask users to choose some number (an `int`). One of the valid
}
This works because `optional<T>` is `LessThanComparable` whenever `T` is `LessThanComparable`. In this case the state of being uninitialized is treated as a yet another value of `T`, which is compared less than any value of `T`. So the set of values that type `optional<T>` can assume is {`boost::none`, -2147483648, -2147483647, ..., -1, 0, 1, ..., 2147483647} (assuming a 32-bit `int`).
[/endsect]
[endsect]
[endsect]

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@ -11,8 +11,22 @@
[section Dependencies and Portability]
The implementation uses `type_traits/alignment_of.hpp` and
`type_traits/type_with_alignment.hpp`
[section Dependencies]
The implementation uses the following other Boost modules:
# assert
# config
# core
# detail
# move
# mpl
# static_assert
# throw_exception
# type_traits
# utility
[endsect]
[section Optional Reference Binding]

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@ -25,10 +25,11 @@ boostbook standalone
optional
:
<xsl:param>boost.root=../../../..
<xsl:param>toc.max.depth=2
<xsl:param>chapter.autolabel=0
<xsl:param>chunk.section.depth=8
<xsl:param>toc.section.depth=2
<xsl:param>chunk.first.sections=2
<xsl:param>chunk.section.depth=2
<xsl:param>toc.max.depth=2
<xsl:param>generate.section.toc.level=1
<format>pdf:<xsl:param>img.src.path=$(images)/
<format>pdf:<xsl:param>boost.url.prefix=http://www.boost.org/doc/libs/release/libs/optional/doc/html
;

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@ -4,8 +4,8 @@
<title>Acknowledgments</title>
<link rel="stylesheet" href="../../../../../doc/src/boostbook.css" type="text/css">
<meta name="generator" content="DocBook XSL Stylesheets V1.78.1">
<link rel="home" href="../index.html" title="Chapter&#160;1.&#160;Boost.Optional">
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@ -4,8 +4,8 @@
<title>Dependencies and Portability</title>
<link rel="stylesheet" href="../../../../../doc/src/boostbook.css" type="text/css">
<meta name="generator" content="DocBook XSL Stylesheets V1.78.1">
<link rel="home" href="../index.html" title="Chapter&#160;1.&#160;Boost.Optional">
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<link rel="home" href="../index.html" title="Boost.Optional">
<link rel="up" href="../index.html" title="Boost.Optional">
<link rel="prev" href="reference/detailed_semantics.html" title="Detailed Semantics">
<link rel="next" href="dependencies_and_portability/optional_reference_binding.html" title="Optional Reference Binding">
</head>
@ -27,12 +27,51 @@
<a name="boost_optional.dependencies_and_portability"></a><a class="link" href="dependencies_and_portability.html" title="Dependencies and Portability">Dependencies
and Portability</a>
</h2></div></div></div>
<div class="toc"><dl class="toc"><dt><span class="section"><a href="dependencies_and_portability/optional_reference_binding.html">Optional
Reference Binding</a></span></dt></dl></div>
<div class="toc"><dl class="toc">
<dt><span class="section"><a href="dependencies_and_portability.html#boost_optional.dependencies_and_portability.dependencies">Dependencies</a></span></dt>
<dt><span class="section"><a href="dependencies_and_portability/optional_reference_binding.html">Optional
Reference Binding</a></span></dt>
</dl></div>
<div class="section">
<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
<a name="boost_optional.dependencies_and_portability.dependencies"></a><a class="link" href="dependencies_and_portability.html#boost_optional.dependencies_and_portability.dependencies" title="Dependencies">Dependencies</a>
</h3></div></div></div>
<p>
The implementation uses <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">type_traits</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">alignment_of</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">hpp</span></code> and
<code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">type_traits</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">type_with_alignment</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">hpp</span></code>
The implementation uses the following other Boost modules:
</p>
<div class="orderedlist"><ol class="orderedlist" type="1">
<li class="listitem">
assert
</li>
<li class="listitem">
config
</li>
<li class="listitem">
core
</li>
<li class="listitem">
detail
</li>
<li class="listitem">
move
</li>
<li class="listitem">
mpl
</li>
<li class="listitem">
static_assert
</li>
<li class="listitem">
throw_exception
</li>
<li class="listitem">
type_traits
</li>
<li class="listitem">
utility
</li>
</ol></div>
</div>
</div>
<table xmlns:rev="http://www.cs.rpi.edu/~gregod/boost/tools/doc/revision" width="100%"><tr>
<td align="left"></td>

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@ -4,7 +4,7 @@
<title>Optional Reference Binding</title>
<link rel="stylesheet" href="../../../../../../doc/src/boostbook.css" type="text/css">
<meta name="generator" content="DocBook XSL Stylesheets V1.78.1">
<link rel="home" href="../../index.html" title="Chapter&#160;1.&#160;Boost.Optional">
<link rel="home" href="../../index.html" title="Boost.Optional">
<link rel="up" href="../dependencies_and_portability.html" title="Dependencies and Portability">
<link rel="prev" href="../dependencies_and_portability.html" title="Dependencies and Portability">
<link rel="next" href="../acknowledgments.html" title="Acknowledgments">

219
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@ -4,10 +4,10 @@
<title>Quick Start</title>
<link rel="stylesheet" href="../../../../../doc/src/boostbook.css" type="text/css">
<meta name="generator" content="DocBook XSL Stylesheets V1.78.1">
<link rel="home" href="../index.html" title="Chapter&#160;1.&#160;Boost.Optional">
<link rel="up" href="../index.html" title="Chapter&#160;1.&#160;Boost.Optional">
<link rel="prev" href="../index.html" title="Chapter&#160;1.&#160;Boost.Optional">
<link rel="next" href="../optional/tutorial.html" title="Tutorial">
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</head>
<body bgcolor="white" text="black" link="#0000FF" vlink="#840084" alink="#0000FF">
<table cellpadding="2" width="100%"><tr>
@ -20,17 +20,29 @@
</tr></table>
<hr>
<div class="spirit-nav">
<a accesskey="p" href="../index.html"><img src="../../../../../doc/src/images/prev.png" alt="Prev"></a><a accesskey="u" href="../index.html"><img src="../../../../../doc/src/images/up.png" alt="Up"></a><a accesskey="h" href="../index.html"><img src="../../../../../doc/src/images/home.png" alt="Home"></a><a accesskey="n" href="../optional/tutorial.html"><img src="../../../../../doc/src/images/next.png" alt="Next"></a>
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</div>
<div class="section">
<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both">
<a name="boost_optional.quick_start"></a><a class="link" href="quick_start.html" title="Quick Start">Quick Start</a>
</h2></div></div></div>
<h4>
<a name="boost_optional.quick_start.h0"></a>
<span class="phrase"><a name="boost_optional.quick_start.optional_return_values"></a></span><a class="link" href="quick_start.html#boost_optional.quick_start.optional_return_values">Optional
<div class="toc"><dl class="toc">
<dt><span class="section"><a href="quick_start.html#boost_optional.quick_start.optional_return_values">Optional
return values</a></span></dt>
<dt><span class="section"><a href="quick_start/optional_automatic_variables.html">Optional
automatic variables</a></span></dt>
<dt><span class="section"><a href="quick_start/optional_data_members.html">Optional
data members</a></span></dt>
<dt><span class="section"><a href="quick_start/bypassing_unnecessary_default_construction.html">Bypassing
unnecessary default construction</a></span></dt>
<dt><span class="section"><a href="quick_start/storage_in_containers.html">Storage
in containers</a></span></dt>
</dl></div>
<div class="section">
<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
<a name="boost_optional.quick_start.optional_return_values"></a><a class="link" href="quick_start.html#boost_optional.quick_start.optional_return_values" title="Optional return values">Optional
return values</a>
</h4>
</h3></div></div></div>
<p>
Let's write and use a converter function that converts an a <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">string</span></code>
to an <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">int</span></code>. It is possible that
@ -45,10 +57,12 @@
</pre>
<p>
All necessary functionality can be included with one header <code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">hpp</span><span class="special">&gt;</span></code>.
The above function signature means that the function can either return a value
of type <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">int</span></code> or a flag indicating
that no value of <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">int</span></code> is available.
This does not indicate an error. It is like one additional value of <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">int</span></code>. This is how we can use our function:
The above function signature means that the function can either return a
value of type <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">int</span></code> or a flag
indicating that no value of <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">int</span></code>
is available. This does not indicate an error. It is like one additional
value of <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">int</span></code>. This is how we
can use our function:
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="keyword">const</span> <span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">string</span><span class="special">&amp;</span> <span class="identifier">text</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="comment">/*... */</span><span class="special">;</span>
<span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">optionl</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="keyword">int</span><span class="special">&gt;</span> <span class="identifier">oi</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">convert</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">text</span><span class="special">);</span> <span class="comment">// move-construct</span>
@ -57,16 +71,15 @@
</pre>
<p>
In order to test if <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">optional</span></code>
contains a value, we use the contextual conversion to type <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">bool</span></code>.
Because of this we can combine the initialization of the optional object and
the test into one instruction:
contains a value, we use the contextual conversion to type <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">bool</span></code>. Because of this we can combine the initialization
of the optional object and the test into one instruction:
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="keyword">if</span> <span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">optionl</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="keyword">int</span><span class="special">&gt;</span> <span class="identifier">oi</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">convert</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">text</span><span class="special">))</span>
<span class="keyword">int</span> <span class="identifier">i</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="special">*</span><span class="identifier">oi</span><span class="special">;</span>
</pre>
<p>
We extract the contained value with <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">operator</span><span class="special">*</span></code> (and with <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">operator</span><span class="special">-&gt;</span></code> where it makes sense). An attempt to extract
the contained value of an uninitialized optional object is an <span class="emphasis"><em>undefined
We extract the contained value with <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">operator</span><span class="special">*</span></code> (and with <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">operator</span><span class="special">-&gt;</span></code> where it makes sense). An attempt to
extract the contained value of an uninitialized optional object is an <span class="emphasis"><em>undefined
behaviour</em></span> (UB). This implementation guards the call with <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">BOOST_ASSERT</span></code>. Therefore you should be sure
that the contained value is there before extracting. For instance, the following
code is reasonably UB-safe:
@ -87,10 +100,10 @@
<span class="special">}</span>
</pre>
<p>
This version throws an exception upon an attempt to access a non-existent contained
value. If your way of dealing with the missing value is to use some default,
like <code class="computeroutput"><span class="number">0</span></code>, there exists a yet another
alternative:
This version throws an exception upon an attempt to access a non-existent
contained value. If your way of dealing with the missing value is to use
some default, like <code class="computeroutput"><span class="number">0</span></code>, there exists
a yet another alternative:
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="keyword">int</span> <span class="identifier">k</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">convert</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">text</span><span class="special">).</span><span class="identifier">value_or</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="number">0</span><span class="special">);</span>
</pre>
@ -114,166 +127,14 @@
<p>
Observe the two return statements. <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">return</span>
<span class="identifier">i</span></code> uses the converting constructor
that can create <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">T</span><span class="special">&gt;</span></code> from
<code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">T</span></code>. Thus constructed optional
object is initialized and its value is a copy of <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">i</span></code>.
that can create <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">T</span><span class="special">&gt;</span></code>
from <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">T</span></code>. Thus constructed
optional object is initialized and its value is a copy of <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">i</span></code>.
The other return statement uses another converting constructor from a special
tag <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">none</span></code>. It is used to indicate that we want
to create an uninitialized optional object.
</p>
<h4>
<a name="boost_optional.quick_start.h1"></a>
<span class="phrase"><a name="boost_optional.quick_start.optional_automatic_variables"></a></span><a class="link" href="quick_start.html#boost_optional.quick_start.optional_automatic_variables">Optional
automatic variables</a>
</h4>
<p>
We could write function <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">convert</span></code>
in a slightly different manner, so that it has a single <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">return</span></code>-statement:
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">optionl</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="keyword">int</span><span class="special">&gt;</span> <span class="identifier">convert</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="keyword">const</span> <span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">string</span><span class="special">&amp;</span> <span class="identifier">text</span><span class="special">)</span>
<span class="special">{</span>
<span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">optionl</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="keyword">int</span><span class="special">&gt;</span> <span class="identifier">ans</span><span class="special">;</span>
<span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">stringstream</span> <span class="identifier">s</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">text</span><span class="special">);</span>
<span class="keyword">int</span> <span class="identifier">i</span><span class="special">;</span>
<span class="keyword">if</span> <span class="special">((</span><span class="identifier">s</span> <span class="special">&gt;&gt;</span> <span class="identifier">i</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special">&amp;&amp;</span> <span class="identifier">s</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">get</span><span class="special">()</span> <span class="special">==</span> <span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">char_traits</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="keyword">char</span><span class="special">&gt;::</span><span class="identifier">eof</span><span class="special">())</span>
<span class="identifier">ans</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">i</span><span class="special">;</span>
<span class="keyword">return</span> <span class="identifier">ans</span><span class="special">;</span>
<span class="special">}</span>
</pre>
<p>
The default constructor of <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">optional</span></code>
creates an unitialized optional object. Unlike with <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">int</span></code>s
you cannot have an <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="keyword">int</span><span class="special">&gt;</span></code>
in an indeterminate state. Its state is always well defined. Instruction <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">ans</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">i</span></code>
initializes the optional object. It uses the assignment from <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">int</span></code>. In general, for <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">T</span><span class="special">&gt;</span></code>,
when an assignment from <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">T</span></code> is
invoked, it can do two things. If the optional object is not initialized our
case here), it initializes it with <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">T</span></code>'s
copy constructor. If the optional object is already initialized, it assigns
the new value to it using <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">T</span></code>'s
copy assignment.
</p>
<h4>
<a name="boost_optional.quick_start.h2"></a>
<span class="phrase"><a name="boost_optional.quick_start.optional_data_members"></a></span><a class="link" href="quick_start.html#boost_optional.quick_start.optional_data_members">Optional
data members</a>
</h4>
<p>
Suppose we want to implement a <span class="emphasis"><em>lazy load</em></span> optimization.
This is because we do not want to perform an expensive initialization of our
<code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">Resource</span></code> until (if at all)
it is really used. We can do it this way:
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="keyword">class</span> <span class="identifier">Widget</span>
<span class="special">{</span>
<span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">Resource</span><span class="special">&gt;</span> <span class="identifier">resource_</span><span class="special">;</span>
<span class="keyword">public</span><span class="special">:</span>
<span class="identifier">Widget</span><span class="special">()</span> <span class="special">{}</span>
<span class="identifier">Resource</span><span class="special">&amp;</span> <span class="identifier">getResource</span><span class="special">()</span> <span class="comment">// not thread-safe</span>
<span class="special">{</span>
<span class="keyword">if</span> <span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">resource_</span> <span class="special">==</span> <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">none</span><span class="special">)</span>
<span class="identifier">resource_</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">emplace</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="string">"resource"</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="string">"arguments"</span><span class="special">);</span>
<span class="keyword">return</span> <span class="special">*</span><span class="identifier">resource_</span><span class="special">;</span>
<span class="special">}</span>
<span class="special">};</span>
</pre>
<p>
<code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">optional</span></code>'s default constructor
creates an uninitialized optional. No call to <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">Resource</span></code>'s
default constructor is attempted. <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">Resource</span></code>
doesn't have to be <a href="http://www.sgi.com/tech/stl/DefaultConstructible.html" target="_top">Default
Constructible</a>. In function <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">getResource</span></code>
we first check if <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">resource_</span></code>
is initialized. This time we do not use the contextual conversion to <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">bool</span></code>, but a comparison with <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">none</span></code>. These
two ways are equivalent. Function <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">emplace</span></code>
initializes the optional in-place by perfect-forwarding the arguments to the
constructor of <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">Resource</span></code>. No
copy- or move-construction is involved here. <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">Resource</span></code>
doesn't even have to be <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">MoveConstructible</span></code>.
</p>
<div class="note"><table border="0" summary="Note">
<tr>
<td rowspan="2" align="center" valign="top" width="25"><img alt="[Note]" src="../../../../../doc/src/images/note.png"></td>
<th align="left">Note</th>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><p>
Function <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">emplace</span></code> is only
available on compilers that support rvalue references and variadic templates.
If your compiler does not support these features and you still need to avoid
any move-constructions, use <a class="link" href="tutorial/in_place_factories.html" title="In-Place Factories">In-Place
Factories</a>.
</p></td></tr>
</table></div>
<h4>
<a name="boost_optional.quick_start.h3"></a>
<span class="phrase"><a name="boost_optional.quick_start.bypassing_unnecessary_default_construction"></a></span><a class="link" href="quick_start.html#boost_optional.quick_start.bypassing_unnecessary_default_construction">Bypassing
unnecessary default construction</a>
</h4>
<p>
Suppose we have class <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">Date</span></code>,
which does not have a default constructor: there is no good candidate for a
default date. We have a function that returns two dates in form of a <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">tuple</span></code>:
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">tuple</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">Date</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">Date</span><span class="special">&gt;</span> <span class="identifier">getPeriod</span><span class="special">();</span>
</pre>
<p>
In other place we want to use the result of <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">getPeriod</span></code>,
but want the two dates to be named: <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">begin</span></code>
and <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">end</span></code>. We want to implement
something like 'multiple return values':
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="identifier">Date</span> <span class="identifier">begin</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">end</span><span class="special">;</span> <span class="comment">// Error: no default ctor!</span>
<span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">tie</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">begin</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">end</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">getPeriod</span><span class="special">();</span>
</pre>
<p>
The second line works already, this is the capability of Boost.Tuple library,
but the first line won't work. We could set some invented initial dates, but
it is confusing and may be an unacceptable cost, given that these values will
be overwritten in the next line anyway. This is where <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">optional</span></code>
can help:
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">Date</span><span class="special">&gt;</span> <span class="identifier">begin</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">end</span><span class="special">;</span>
<span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">tie</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">begin</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">end</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">getPeriod</span><span class="special">();</span>
</pre>
<p>
It works because inside <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">tie</span></code> a move-assignment
from <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">T</span></code> is invoked on <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">T</span><span class="special">&gt;</span></code>, which
internally calls a move-constructor of <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">T</span></code>.
</p>
<h4>
<a name="boost_optional.quick_start.h4"></a>
<span class="phrase"><a name="boost_optional.quick_start.storage_in_containers"></a></span><a class="link" href="quick_start.html#boost_optional.quick_start.storage_in_containers">Storage
in containers</a>
</h4>
<p>
Suppose you want to ask users to choose some number (an <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">int</span></code>).
One of the valid responses is to choose nothing, which is represented by an
uninitialized <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="keyword">int</span><span class="special">&gt;</span></code>. You
want to make a histogram showing how many times each choice was made. You can
use an <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">map</span></code>:
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">map</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="keyword">int</span><span class="special">&gt;,</span> <span class="keyword">int</span><span class="special">&gt;</span> <span class="identifier">choices</span><span class="special">;</span>
<span class="keyword">for</span> <span class="special">(</span><span class="keyword">int</span> <span class="identifier">i</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="number">0</span><span class="special">;</span> <span class="identifier">i</span> <span class="special">&lt;</span> <span class="identifier">LIMIT</span><span class="special">;</span> <span class="special">++</span><span class="identifier">i</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special">{</span>
<span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="keyword">int</span><span class="special">&gt;</span> <span class="identifier">choice</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">readChoice</span><span class="special">();</span>
<span class="special">++</span><span class="identifier">choices</span><span class="special">[</span><span class="identifier">choice</span><span class="special">];</span>
<span class="special">}</span>
</pre>
<p>
This works because <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">T</span><span class="special">&gt;</span></code>
is <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">LessThanComparable</span></code> whenever
<code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">T</span></code> is <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">LessThanComparable</span></code>.
In this case the state of being uninitialized is treated as a yet another value
of <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">T</span></code>, which is compared less
than any value of <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">T</span></code>. So the
set of values that type <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">T</span><span class="special">&gt;</span></code>
can assume is {<code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">none</span></code>, -2147483648, -2147483647, ..., -1,
0, 1, ..., 2147483647} (assuming a 32-bit <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">int</span></code>).
</p>
</div>
</div>
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<td align="left"></td>
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in containers</a>
</h3></div></div></div>
<p>
Suppose you want to ask users to choose some number (an <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">int</span></code>).
One of the valid responses is to choose nothing, which is represented by
an uninitialized <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="keyword">int</span><span class="special">&gt;</span></code>.
You want to make a histogram showing how many times each choice was made.
You can use an <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">map</span></code>:
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">map</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="keyword">int</span><span class="special">&gt;,</span> <span class="keyword">int</span><span class="special">&gt;</span> <span class="identifier">choices</span><span class="special">;</span>
<span class="keyword">for</span> <span class="special">(</span><span class="keyword">int</span> <span class="identifier">i</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="number">0</span><span class="special">;</span> <span class="identifier">i</span> <span class="special">&lt;</span> <span class="identifier">LIMIT</span><span class="special">;</span> <span class="special">++</span><span class="identifier">i</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special">{</span>
<span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="keyword">int</span><span class="special">&gt;</span> <span class="identifier">choice</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">readChoice</span><span class="special">();</span>
<span class="special">++</span><span class="identifier">choices</span><span class="special">[</span><span class="identifier">choice</span><span class="special">];</span>
<span class="special">}</span>
</pre>
<p>
This works because <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">T</span><span class="special">&gt;</span></code>
is <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">LessThanComparable</span></code> whenever
<code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">T</span></code> is <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">LessThanComparable</span></code>.
In this case the state of being uninitialized is treated as a yet another
value of <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">T</span></code>, which is compared
less than any value of <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">T</span></code>.
So the set of values that type <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">T</span><span class="special">&gt;</span></code>
can assume is {<code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">none</span></code>, -2147483648, -2147483647, ..., -1,
0, 1, ..., 2147483647} (assuming a 32-bit <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">int</span></code>).
</p>
</div>
<table xmlns:rev="http://www.cs.rpi.edu/~gregod/boost/tools/doc/revision" width="100%"><tr>
<td align="left"></td>
<td align="right"><div class="copyright-footer">Copyright &#169; 2003-2007 Fernando Luis Cacciola Carballal<br>Copyright &#169; 2014 Andrzej Krzemie&#324;ski<p>
Distributed under the Boost Software License, Version 1.0. (See accompanying
file LICENSE_1_0.txt or copy at <a href="http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt" target="_top">http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt</a>)
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<title>A note about optional&lt;bool&gt;</title>
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<div class="section">
<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
<a name="boost_optional.tutorial.design_overview"></a><a class="link" href="design_overview.html" title="Design Overview">Design Overview</a>
</h3></div></div></div>
<div class="toc"><dl class="toc">
<dt><span class="section"><a href="design_overview.html#boost_optional.tutorial.design_overview.the_models">The
models</a></span></dt>
<dt><span class="section"><a href="design_overview.html#boost_optional.tutorial.design_overview.the_semantics">The
semantics</a></span></dt>
<dt><span class="section"><a href="design_overview.html#boost_optional.tutorial.design_overview.the_interface">The
Interface</a></span></dt>
</dl></div>
<div class="section">
<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h4 class="title">
<a name="boost_optional.tutorial.design_overview.the_models"></a><a class="link" href="design_overview.html#boost_optional.tutorial.design_overview.the_models" title="The models">The
@ -175,237 +167,6 @@
</li>
</ul></div>
</div>
<div class="section">
<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h4 class="title">
<a name="boost_optional.tutorial.design_overview.the_semantics"></a><a class="link" href="design_overview.html#boost_optional.tutorial.design_overview.the_semantics" title="The semantics">The
semantics</a>
</h4></div></div></div>
<p>
Objects of type <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">T</span><span class="special">&gt;</span></code> are intended to be used in places where
objects of type <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">T</span></code> would
but which might be uninitialized. Hence, <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">T</span><span class="special">&gt;</span></code>'s purpose is to formalize the additional
possibly uninitialized state. From the perspective of this role, <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">T</span><span class="special">&gt;</span></code>
can have the same operational semantics of <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">T</span></code>
plus the additional semantics corresponding to this special state. As such,
<code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">T</span><span class="special">&gt;</span></code>
could be thought of as a <span class="emphasis"><em>supertype</em></span> of <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">T</span></code>. Of course, we can't do that in C++,
so we need to compose the desired semantics using a different mechanism.
Doing it the other way around, that is, making <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">T</span><span class="special">&gt;</span></code> a <span class="emphasis"><em>subtype</em></span> of
<code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">T</span></code> is not only conceptually
wrong but also impractical: it is not allowed to derive from a non-class
type, such as a built-in type.
</p>
<p>
We can draw from the purpose of <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">T</span><span class="special">&gt;</span></code> the required basic semantics:
</p>
<div class="itemizedlist"><ul class="itemizedlist" style="list-style-type: disc; ">
<li class="listitem">
<span class="bold"><strong>Default Construction:</strong></span> To introduce
a formally uninitialized wrapped object.
</li>
<li class="listitem">
<span class="bold"><strong>Direct Value Construction via copy:</strong></span>
To introduce a formally initialized wrapped object whose value is obtained
as a copy of some object.
</li>
<li class="listitem">
<span class="bold"><strong>Deep Copy Construction:</strong></span> To obtain
a new yet equivalent wrapped object.
</li>
<li class="listitem">
<span class="bold"><strong>Direct Value Assignment (upon initialized):</strong></span>
To assign a value to the wrapped object.
</li>
<li class="listitem">
<span class="bold"><strong>Direct Value Assignment (upon uninitialized):</strong></span>
To initialize the wrapped object with a value obtained as a copy of
some object.
</li>
<li class="listitem">
<span class="bold"><strong>Assignment (upon initialized):</strong></span> To
assign to the wrapped object the value of another wrapped object.
</li>
<li class="listitem">
<span class="bold"><strong>Assignment (upon uninitialized):</strong></span> To
initialize the wrapped object with value of another wrapped object.
</li>
<li class="listitem">
<span class="bold"><strong>Deep Relational Operations (when supported by
the type T):</strong></span> To compare wrapped object values taking into
account the presence of uninitialized states.
</li>
<li class="listitem">
<span class="bold"><strong>Value access:</strong></span> To unwrap the wrapped
object.
</li>
<li class="listitem">
<span class="bold"><strong>Initialization state query:</strong></span> To determine
if the object is formally initialized or not.
</li>
<li class="listitem">
<span class="bold"><strong>Swap:</strong></span> To exchange wrapped objects.
(with whatever exception safety guarantees are provided by <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">T</span></code>'s swap).
</li>
<li class="listitem">
<span class="bold"><strong>De-initialization:</strong></span> To release the
wrapped object (if any) and leave the wrapper in the uninitialized
state.
</li>
</ul></div>
<p>
Additional operations are useful, such as converting constructors and converting
assignments, in-place construction and assignment, and safe value access
via a pointer to the wrapped object or null.
</p>
</div>
<div class="section">
<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h4 class="title">
<a name="boost_optional.tutorial.design_overview.the_interface"></a><a class="link" href="design_overview.html#boost_optional.tutorial.design_overview.the_interface" title="The Interface">The
Interface</a>
</h4></div></div></div>
<p>
Since the purpose of optional is to allow us to use objects with a formal
uninitialized additional state, the interface could try to follow the interface
of the underlying <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">T</span></code> type
as much as possible. In order to choose the proper degree of adoption of
the native <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">T</span></code> interface,
the following must be noted: Even if all the operations supported by an
instance of type <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">T</span></code> are
defined for the entire range of values for such a type, an <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">T</span><span class="special">&gt;</span></code>
extends such a set of values with a new value for which most (otherwise
valid) operations are not defined in terms of <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">T</span></code>.
</p>
<p>
Furthermore, since <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">T</span><span class="special">&gt;</span></code> itself is merely a <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">T</span></code>
wrapper (modeling a <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">T</span></code> supertype),
any attempt to define such operations upon uninitialized optionals will
be totally artificial w.r.t. <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">T</span></code>.
</p>
<p>
This library chooses an interface which follows from <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">T</span></code>'s
interface only for those operations which are well defined (w.r.t the type
<code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">T</span></code>) even if any of the operands
are uninitialized. These operations include: construction, copy-construction,
assignment, swap and relational operations.
</p>
<p>
For the value access operations, which are undefined (w.r.t the type <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">T</span></code>) when the operand is uninitialized,
a different interface is chosen (which will be explained next).
</p>
<p>
Also, the presence of the possibly uninitialized state requires additional
operations not provided by <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">T</span></code>
itself which are supported by a special interface.
</p>
<h6>
<a name="boost_optional.tutorial.design_overview.the_interface.h0"></a>
<span class="phrase"><a name="boost_optional.tutorial.design_overview.the_interface.lexically_hinted_value_access_in_the_presence_of_possibly_untitialized_optional_objects__the_operators___and___gt_"></a></span><a class="link" href="design_overview.html#boost_optional.tutorial.design_overview.the_interface.lexically_hinted_value_access_in_the_presence_of_possibly_untitialized_optional_objects__the_operators___and___gt_">Lexically-hinted
Value Access in the presence of possibly untitialized optional objects:
The operators * and -&gt;</a>
</h6>
<p>
A relevant feature of a pointer is that it can have a <span class="bold"><strong>null
pointer value</strong></span>. This is a <span class="emphasis"><em>special</em></span> value
which is used to indicate that the pointer is not referring to any object
at all. In other words, null pointer values convey the notion of nonexistent
objects.
</p>
<p>
This meaning of the null pointer value allowed pointers to became a <span class="emphasis"><em>de
facto</em></span> standard for handling optional objects because all you
have to do to refer to a value which you don't really have is to use a
null pointer value of the appropriate type. Pointers have been used for
decades&#8212;from the days of C APIs to modern C++ libraries&#8212;to <span class="emphasis"><em>refer</em></span>
to optional (that is, possibly nonexistent) objects; particularly as optional
arguments to a function, but also quite often as optional data members.
</p>
<p>
The possible presence of a null pointer value makes the operations that
access the pointee's value possibly undefined, therefore, expressions which
use dereference and access operators, such as: <code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">(</span>
<span class="special">*</span><span class="identifier">p</span>
<span class="special">=</span> <span class="number">2</span> <span class="special">)</span></code> and <code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">(</span>
<span class="identifier">p</span><span class="special">-&gt;</span><span class="identifier">foo</span><span class="special">()</span> <span class="special">)</span></code>, implicitly convey the notion of optionality,
and this information is tied to the <span class="emphasis"><em>syntax</em></span> of the
expressions. That is, the presence of operators <code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">*</span></code>
and <code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">-&gt;</span></code> tell by themselves
&#8212;without any additional context&#8212; that the expression will be undefined
unless the implied pointee actually exist.
</p>
<p>
Such a <span class="emphasis"><em>de facto</em></span> idiom for referring to optional objects
can be formalized in the form of a concept: the <a href="../../../../../utility/OptionalPointee.html" target="_top">OptionalPointee</a>
concept. This concept captures the syntactic usage of operators <code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">*</span></code>, <code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">-&gt;</span></code>
and contextual conversion to <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">bool</span></code>
to convey the notion of optionality.
</p>
<p>
However, pointers are good to <span class="underline">refer</span>
to optional objects, but not particularly good to handle the optional objects
in all other respects, such as initializing or moving/copying them. The
problem resides in the shallow-copy of pointer semantics: if you need to
effectively move or copy the object, pointers alone are not enough. The
problem is that copies of pointers do not imply copies of pointees. For
example, as was discussed in the motivation, pointers alone cannot be used
to return optional objects from a function because the object must move
outside from the function and into the caller's context.
</p>
<p>
A solution to the shallow-copy problem that is often used is to resort
to dynamic allocation and use a smart pointer to automatically handle the
details of this. For example, if a function is to optionally return an
object <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">X</span></code>, it can use <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">shared_ptr</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">X</span><span class="special">&gt;</span></code>
as the return value. However, this requires dynamic allocation of <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">X</span></code>. If <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">X</span></code>
is a built-in or small POD, this technique is very poor in terms of required
resources. Optional objects are essentially values so it is very convenient
to be able to use automatic storage and deep-copy semantics to manipulate
optional values just as we do with ordinary values. Pointers do not have
this semantics, so are inappropriate for the initialization and transport
of optional values, yet are quite convenient for handling the access to
the possible undefined value because of the idiomatic aid present in the
<a href="../../../../../utility/OptionalPointee.html" target="_top">OptionalPointee</a>
concept incarnated by pointers.
</p>
<h6>
<a name="boost_optional.tutorial.design_overview.the_interface.h1"></a>
<span class="phrase"><a name="boost_optional.tutorial.design_overview.the_interface.optional_lt_t_gt__as_a_model_of_optionalpointee"></a></span><a class="link" href="design_overview.html#boost_optional.tutorial.design_overview.the_interface.optional_lt_t_gt__as_a_model_of_optionalpointee">Optional&lt;T&gt;
as a model of OptionalPointee</a>
</h6>
<p>
For value access operations <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">&lt;&gt;</span></code> uses operators <code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">*</span></code>
and <code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">-&gt;</span></code> to lexically warn
about the possibly uninitialized state appealing to the familiar pointer
semantics w.r.t. to null pointers.
</p>
<div class="warning"><table border="0" summary="Warning">
<tr>
<td rowspan="2" align="center" valign="top" width="25"><img alt="[Warning]" src="../../../../../../doc/src/images/warning.png"></td>
<th align="left">Warning</th>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><p>
However, it is particularly important to note that <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">&lt;&gt;</span></code> objects are not pointers. <span class="underline"><code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">&lt;&gt;</span></code> is not, and does not model, a
pointer</span>.
</p></td></tr>
</table></div>
<p>
For instance, <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">&lt;&gt;</span></code> does not have shallow-copy so does
not alias: two different optionals never refer to the <span class="emphasis"><em>same</em></span>
value unless <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">T</span></code> itself is
a reference (but may have <span class="emphasis"><em>equivalent</em></span> values). The
difference between an <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">T</span><span class="special">&gt;</span></code> and a pointer must be kept in mind,
particularly because the semantics of relational operators are different:
since <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">T</span><span class="special">&gt;</span></code>
is a value-wrapper, relational operators are deep: they compare optional
values; but relational operators for pointers are shallow: they do not
compare pointee values. As a result, you might be able to replace <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">T</span><span class="special">&gt;</span></code>
by <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">T</span><span class="special">*</span></code>
on some situations but not always. Specifically, on generic code written
for both, you cannot use relational operators directly, and must use the
template functions <a href="../../../../../utility/OptionalPointee.html#equal" target="_top"><code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">equal_pointees</span><span class="special">()</span></code></a>
and <a href="../../../../../utility/OptionalPointee.html#less" target="_top"><code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">less_pointees</span><span class="special">()</span></code></a>
instead.
</p>
</div>
</div>
<table xmlns:rev="http://www.cs.rpi.edu/~gregod/boost/tools/doc/revision" width="100%"><tr>
<td align="left"></td>
@ -417,7 +178,7 @@
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<div class="section">
<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h4 class="title">
<a name="boost_optional.tutorial.design_overview.the_interface"></a><a class="link" href="the_interface.html" title="The Interface">The
Interface</a>
</h4></div></div></div>
<p>
Since the purpose of optional is to allow us to use objects with a formal
uninitialized additional state, the interface could try to follow the interface
of the underlying <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">T</span></code> type
as much as possible. In order to choose the proper degree of adoption of
the native <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">T</span></code> interface,
the following must be noted: Even if all the operations supported by an
instance of type <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">T</span></code> are
defined for the entire range of values for such a type, an <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">T</span><span class="special">&gt;</span></code>
extends such a set of values with a new value for which most (otherwise
valid) operations are not defined in terms of <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">T</span></code>.
</p>
<p>
Furthermore, since <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">T</span><span class="special">&gt;</span></code> itself is merely a <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">T</span></code>
wrapper (modeling a <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">T</span></code> supertype),
any attempt to define such operations upon uninitialized optionals will
be totally artificial w.r.t. <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">T</span></code>.
</p>
<p>
This library chooses an interface which follows from <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">T</span></code>'s
interface only for those operations which are well defined (w.r.t the type
<code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">T</span></code>) even if any of the operands
are uninitialized. These operations include: construction, copy-construction,
assignment, swap and relational operations.
</p>
<p>
For the value access operations, which are undefined (w.r.t the type <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">T</span></code>) when the operand is uninitialized,
a different interface is chosen (which will be explained next).
</p>
<p>
Also, the presence of the possibly uninitialized state requires additional
operations not provided by <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">T</span></code>
itself which are supported by a special interface.
</p>
<h6>
<a name="boost_optional.tutorial.design_overview.the_interface.h0"></a>
<span class="phrase"><a name="boost_optional.tutorial.design_overview.the_interface.lexically_hinted_value_access_in_the_presence_of_possibly_untitialized_optional_objects__the_operators___and___gt_"></a></span><a class="link" href="the_interface.html#boost_optional.tutorial.design_overview.the_interface.lexically_hinted_value_access_in_the_presence_of_possibly_untitialized_optional_objects__the_operators___and___gt_">Lexically-hinted
Value Access in the presence of possibly untitialized optional objects:
The operators * and -&gt;</a>
</h6>
<p>
A relevant feature of a pointer is that it can have a <span class="bold"><strong>null
pointer value</strong></span>. This is a <span class="emphasis"><em>special</em></span> value
which is used to indicate that the pointer is not referring to any object
at all. In other words, null pointer values convey the notion of nonexistent
objects.
</p>
<p>
This meaning of the null pointer value allowed pointers to became a <span class="emphasis"><em>de
facto</em></span> standard for handling optional objects because all you
have to do to refer to a value which you don't really have is to use a
null pointer value of the appropriate type. Pointers have been used for
decades&#8212;from the days of C APIs to modern C++ libraries&#8212;to <span class="emphasis"><em>refer</em></span>
to optional (that is, possibly nonexistent) objects; particularly as optional
arguments to a function, but also quite often as optional data members.
</p>
<p>
The possible presence of a null pointer value makes the operations that
access the pointee's value possibly undefined, therefore, expressions which
use dereference and access operators, such as: <code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">(</span>
<span class="special">*</span><span class="identifier">p</span>
<span class="special">=</span> <span class="number">2</span> <span class="special">)</span></code> and <code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">(</span>
<span class="identifier">p</span><span class="special">-&gt;</span><span class="identifier">foo</span><span class="special">()</span> <span class="special">)</span></code>, implicitly convey the notion of optionality,
and this information is tied to the <span class="emphasis"><em>syntax</em></span> of the
expressions. That is, the presence of operators <code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">*</span></code>
and <code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">-&gt;</span></code> tell by themselves
&#8212;without any additional context&#8212; that the expression will be undefined
unless the implied pointee actually exist.
</p>
<p>
Such a <span class="emphasis"><em>de facto</em></span> idiom for referring to optional objects
can be formalized in the form of a concept: the <a href="../../../../../../utility/OptionalPointee.html" target="_top">OptionalPointee</a>
concept. This concept captures the syntactic usage of operators <code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">*</span></code>, <code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">-&gt;</span></code>
and contextual conversion to <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">bool</span></code>
to convey the notion of optionality.
</p>
<p>
However, pointers are good to <span class="underline">refer</span>
to optional objects, but not particularly good to handle the optional objects
in all other respects, such as initializing or moving/copying them. The
problem resides in the shallow-copy of pointer semantics: if you need to
effectively move or copy the object, pointers alone are not enough. The
problem is that copies of pointers do not imply copies of pointees. For
example, as was discussed in the motivation, pointers alone cannot be used
to return optional objects from a function because the object must move
outside from the function and into the caller's context.
</p>
<p>
A solution to the shallow-copy problem that is often used is to resort
to dynamic allocation and use a smart pointer to automatically handle the
details of this. For example, if a function is to optionally return an
object <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">X</span></code>, it can use <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">shared_ptr</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">X</span><span class="special">&gt;</span></code>
as the return value. However, this requires dynamic allocation of <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">X</span></code>. If <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">X</span></code>
is a built-in or small POD, this technique is very poor in terms of required
resources. Optional objects are essentially values so it is very convenient
to be able to use automatic storage and deep-copy semantics to manipulate
optional values just as we do with ordinary values. Pointers do not have
this semantics, so are inappropriate for the initialization and transport
of optional values, yet are quite convenient for handling the access to
the possible undefined value because of the idiomatic aid present in the
<a href="../../../../../../utility/OptionalPointee.html" target="_top">OptionalPointee</a>
concept incarnated by pointers.
</p>
<h6>
<a name="boost_optional.tutorial.design_overview.the_interface.h1"></a>
<span class="phrase"><a name="boost_optional.tutorial.design_overview.the_interface.optional_lt_t_gt__as_a_model_of_optionalpointee"></a></span><a class="link" href="the_interface.html#boost_optional.tutorial.design_overview.the_interface.optional_lt_t_gt__as_a_model_of_optionalpointee">Optional&lt;T&gt;
as a model of OptionalPointee</a>
</h6>
<p>
For value access operations <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">&lt;&gt;</span></code> uses operators <code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">*</span></code>
and <code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">-&gt;</span></code> to lexically warn
about the possibly uninitialized state appealing to the familiar pointer
semantics w.r.t. to null pointers.
</p>
<div class="warning"><table border="0" summary="Warning">
<tr>
<td rowspan="2" align="center" valign="top" width="25"><img alt="[Warning]" src="../../../../../../../doc/src/images/warning.png"></td>
<th align="left">Warning</th>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><p>
However, it is particularly important to note that <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">&lt;&gt;</span></code> objects are not pointers. <span class="underline"><code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">&lt;&gt;</span></code> is not, and does not model, a
pointer</span>.
</p></td></tr>
</table></div>
<p>
For instance, <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">&lt;&gt;</span></code> does not have shallow-copy so does
not alias: two different optionals never refer to the <span class="emphasis"><em>same</em></span>
value unless <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">T</span></code> itself is
a reference (but may have <span class="emphasis"><em>equivalent</em></span> values). The
difference between an <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">T</span><span class="special">&gt;</span></code> and a pointer must be kept in mind,
particularly because the semantics of relational operators are different:
since <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">T</span><span class="special">&gt;</span></code>
is a value-wrapper, relational operators are deep: they compare optional
values; but relational operators for pointers are shallow: they do not
compare pointee values. As a result, you might be able to replace <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">T</span><span class="special">&gt;</span></code>
by <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">T</span><span class="special">*</span></code>
on some situations but not always. Specifically, on generic code written
for both, you cannot use relational operators directly, and must use the
template functions <a href="../../../../../../utility/OptionalPointee.html#equal" target="_top"><code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">equal_pointees</span><span class="special">()</span></code></a>
and <a href="../../../../../../utility/OptionalPointee.html#less" target="_top"><code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">less_pointees</span><span class="special">()</span></code></a>
instead.
</p>
</div>
<table xmlns:rev="http://www.cs.rpi.edu/~gregod/boost/tools/doc/revision" width="100%"><tr>
<td align="left"></td>
<td align="right"><div class="copyright-footer">Copyright &#169; 2003-2007 Fernando Luis Cacciola Carballal<br>Copyright &#169; 2014 Andrzej Krzemie&#324;ski<p>
Distributed under the Boost Software License, Version 1.0. (See accompanying
file LICENSE_1_0.txt or copy at <a href="http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt" target="_top">http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt</a>)
</p>
</div></td>
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<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h4 class="title">
<a name="boost_optional.tutorial.design_overview.the_semantics"></a><a class="link" href="the_semantics.html" title="The semantics">The
semantics</a>
</h4></div></div></div>
<p>
Objects of type <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">T</span><span class="special">&gt;</span></code> are intended to be used in places where
objects of type <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">T</span></code> would
but which might be uninitialized. Hence, <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">T</span><span class="special">&gt;</span></code>'s purpose is to formalize the additional
possibly uninitialized state. From the perspective of this role, <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">T</span><span class="special">&gt;</span></code>
can have the same operational semantics of <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">T</span></code>
plus the additional semantics corresponding to this special state. As such,
<code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">T</span><span class="special">&gt;</span></code>
could be thought of as a <span class="emphasis"><em>supertype</em></span> of <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">T</span></code>. Of course, we can't do that in C++,
so we need to compose the desired semantics using a different mechanism.
Doing it the other way around, that is, making <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">T</span><span class="special">&gt;</span></code> a <span class="emphasis"><em>subtype</em></span> of
<code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">T</span></code> is not only conceptually
wrong but also impractical: it is not allowed to derive from a non-class
type, such as a built-in type.
</p>
<p>
We can draw from the purpose of <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">T</span><span class="special">&gt;</span></code> the required basic semantics:
</p>
<div class="itemizedlist"><ul class="itemizedlist" style="list-style-type: disc; ">
<li class="listitem">
<span class="bold"><strong>Default Construction:</strong></span> To introduce
a formally uninitialized wrapped object.
</li>
<li class="listitem">
<span class="bold"><strong>Direct Value Construction via copy:</strong></span>
To introduce a formally initialized wrapped object whose value is obtained
as a copy of some object.
</li>
<li class="listitem">
<span class="bold"><strong>Deep Copy Construction:</strong></span> To obtain
a new yet equivalent wrapped object.
</li>
<li class="listitem">
<span class="bold"><strong>Direct Value Assignment (upon initialized):</strong></span>
To assign a value to the wrapped object.
</li>
<li class="listitem">
<span class="bold"><strong>Direct Value Assignment (upon uninitialized):</strong></span>
To initialize the wrapped object with a value obtained as a copy of
some object.
</li>
<li class="listitem">
<span class="bold"><strong>Assignment (upon initialized):</strong></span> To
assign to the wrapped object the value of another wrapped object.
</li>
<li class="listitem">
<span class="bold"><strong>Assignment (upon uninitialized):</strong></span> To
initialize the wrapped object with value of another wrapped object.
</li>
<li class="listitem">
<span class="bold"><strong>Deep Relational Operations (when supported by
the type T):</strong></span> To compare wrapped object values taking into
account the presence of uninitialized states.
</li>
<li class="listitem">
<span class="bold"><strong>Value access:</strong></span> To unwrap the wrapped
object.
</li>
<li class="listitem">
<span class="bold"><strong>Initialization state query:</strong></span> To determine
if the object is formally initialized or not.
</li>
<li class="listitem">
<span class="bold"><strong>Swap:</strong></span> To exchange wrapped objects.
(with whatever exception safety guarantees are provided by <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">T</span></code>'s swap).
</li>
<li class="listitem">
<span class="bold"><strong>De-initialization:</strong></span> To release the
wrapped object (if any) and leave the wrapper in the uninitialized
state.
</li>
</ul></div>
<p>
Additional operations are useful, such as converting constructors and converting
assignments, in-place construction and assignment, and safe value access
via a pointer to the wrapped object or null.
</p>
</div>
<table xmlns:rev="http://www.cs.rpi.edu/~gregod/boost/tools/doc/revision" width="100%"><tr>
<td align="left"></td>
<td align="right"><div class="copyright-footer">Copyright &#169; 2003-2007 Fernando Luis Cacciola Carballal<br>Copyright &#169; 2014 Andrzej Krzemie&#324;ski<p>
Distributed under the Boost Software License, Version 1.0. (See accompanying
file LICENSE_1_0.txt or copy at <a href="http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt" target="_top">http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt</a>)
</p>
</div></td>
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<div class="chapter">
<div class="titlepage"><div>
<div><h2 class="title">
<a name="optional"></a>Chapter&#160;1.&#160;Boost.Optional</h2></div>
<a name="optional"></a>Boost.Optional</h2></div>
<div><div class="author"><h3 class="author">
<span class="firstname">Fernando Luis</span> <span class="surname">Cacciola Carballal</span>
</h3></div></div>
@ -37,10 +37,23 @@
<div class="toc">
<p><b>Table of Contents</b></p>
<dl class="toc">
<dt><span class="section"><a href="index.html#optional.introduction">Introduction</a></span></dt>
<dt><span class="section"><a href="boost_optional/quick_start.html">Quick Start</a></span></dt>
<dd><dl>
<dt><span class="section"><a href="boost_optional/quick_start.html#boost_optional.quick_start.optional_return_values">Optional
return values</a></span></dt>
<dt><span class="section"><a href="boost_optional/quick_start/optional_automatic_variables.html">Optional
automatic variables</a></span></dt>
<dt><span class="section"><a href="boost_optional/quick_start/optional_data_members.html">Optional
data members</a></span></dt>
<dt><span class="section"><a href="boost_optional/quick_start/bypassing_unnecessary_default_construction.html">Bypassing
unnecessary default construction</a></span></dt>
<dt><span class="section"><a href="boost_optional/quick_start/storage_in_containers.html">Storage
in containers</a></span></dt>
</dl></dd>
<dt><span class="section"><a href="optional/tutorial.html">Tutorial</a></span></dt>
<dd><dl>
<dt><span class="section"><a href="boost_optional/tutorial/motivation.html">Motivation</a></span></dt>
<dt><span class="section"><a href="optional/tutorial.html#boost_optional.tutorial.motivation">Motivation</a></span></dt>
<dt><span class="section"><a href="boost_optional/tutorial/design_overview.html">Design Overview</a></span></dt>
<dt><span class="section"><a href="boost_optional/tutorial/optional_references.html">Optional
references</a></span></dt>
@ -56,45 +69,48 @@
</dl></dd>
<dt><span class="section"><a href="optional/reference.html">Reference</a></span></dt>
<dd><dl>
<dt><span class="section"><a href="boost_optional/reference/synopsis.html">Synopsis</a></span></dt>
<dt><span class="section"><a href="optional/reference.html#boost_optional.reference.synopsis">Synopsis</a></span></dt>
<dt><span class="section"><a href="boost_optional/reference/detailed_semantics.html">Detailed
Semantics</a></span></dt>
</dl></dd>
<dt><span class="section"><a href="boost_optional/dependencies_and_portability.html">Dependencies
and Portability</a></span></dt>
<dd><dl><dt><span class="section"><a href="boost_optional/dependencies_and_portability/optional_reference_binding.html">Optional
Reference Binding</a></span></dt></dl></dd>
<dd><dl>
<dt><span class="section"><a href="boost_optional/dependencies_and_portability.html#boost_optional.dependencies_and_portability.dependencies">Dependencies</a></span></dt>
<dt><span class="section"><a href="boost_optional/dependencies_and_portability/optional_reference_binding.html">Optional
Reference Binding</a></span></dt>
</dl></dd>
<dt><span class="section"><a href="boost_optional/acknowledgments.html">Acknowledgments</a></span></dt>
</dl>
</div>
<h3>
<a name="optional.h0"></a>
<span class="phrase"><a name="optional.introduction"></a></span><a class="link" href="index.html#optional.introduction">Introduction</a>
</h3>
<div class="section">
<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both">
<a name="optional.introduction"></a><a class="link" href="index.html#optional.introduction" title="Introduction">Introduction</a>
</h2></div></div></div>
<p>
Class template <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">optional</span></code> is a
wrapper for representing 'optional' (or 'nullable') objects who may not (yet)
Class template <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">optional</span></code> is
a wrapper for representing 'optional' (or 'nullable') objects who may not (yet)
contain a valid value. Optional objects offer full value semantics; they are
good for passing by value and usage inside STL containers. This is a header-only
library.
</p>
<h3>
<a name="optional.h1"></a>
<span class="phrase"><a name="optional.problem"></a></span><a class="link" href="index.html#optional.problem">Problem</a>
</h3>
<h4>
<a name="optional.introduction.h0"></a>
<span class="phrase"><a name="optional.introduction.problem"></a></span><a class="link" href="index.html#optional.introduction.problem">Problem</a>
</h4>
<p>
Suppose we want to read a parameter form a config file which represents some
integral value, let's call it <code class="computeroutput"><span class="string">"MaxValue"</span></code>.
It is possible that this parameter is not specified; such situation is no error.
It is valid to not specify the parameter and in that case the program is supposed
to behave slightly different. Also suppose that any possible value of type <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">int</span></code> is a valid value for <code class="computeroutput"><span class="string">"MaxValue"</span></code>,
so we cannot jut use <code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">-</span><span class="number">1</span></code>
to represent the absence of the parameter in the config file.
to behave slightly different. Also suppose that any possible value of type
<code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">int</span></code> is a valid value for <code class="computeroutput"><span class="string">"MaxValue"</span></code>, so we cannot jut use <code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">-</span><span class="number">1</span></code> to represent
the absence of the parameter in the config file.
</p>
<h3>
<a name="optional.h2"></a>
<span class="phrase"><a name="optional.solution"></a></span><a class="link" href="index.html#optional.solution">Solution</a>
</h3>
<h4>
<a name="optional.introduction.h1"></a>
<span class="phrase"><a name="optional.introduction.solution"></a></span><a class="link" href="index.html#optional.introduction.solution">Solution</a>
</h4>
<p>
This is how you solve it with <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">optional</span></code>:
</p>
@ -111,8 +127,9 @@
<span class="special">}</span>
</pre>
</div>
</div>
<table xmlns:rev="http://www.cs.rpi.edu/~gregod/boost/tools/doc/revision" width="100%"><tr>
<td align="left"><p><small>Last revised: June 04, 2014 at 21:00:26 GMT</small></p></td>
<td align="left"><p><small>Last revised: June 05, 2014 at 22:46:34 GMT</small></p></td>
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<p>
Class template <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">optional</span></code> is
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contain a valid value. Optional objects offer full value semantics; they are
good for passing by value and usage inside STL containers. This is a header-only
library.
</p>
<h4>
<a name="optional.introduction.h0"></a>
<span class="phrase"><a name="optional.introduction.problem"></a></span><a class="link" href="introduction.html#optional.introduction.problem">Problem</a>
</h4>
<p>
Suppose we want to read a parameter form a config file which represents some
integral value, let's call it <code class="computeroutput"><span class="string">"MaxValue"</span></code>.
It is possible that this parameter is not specified; such situation is no error.
It is valid to not specify the parameter and in that case the program is supposed
to behave slightly different. Also suppose that any possible value of type
<code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">int</span></code> is a valid value for <code class="computeroutput"><span class="string">"MaxValue"</span></code>, so we cannot jut use <code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">-</span><span class="number">1</span></code> to represent
the absence of the parameter in the config file.
</p>
<h4>
<a name="optional.introduction.h1"></a>
<span class="phrase"><a name="optional.introduction.solution"></a></span><a class="link" href="introduction.html#optional.introduction.solution">Solution</a>
</h4>
<p>
This is how you solve it with <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">optional</span></code>:
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="preprocessor">#include</span> <span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">hpp</span><span class="special">&gt;</span>
<span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="keyword">int</span><span class="special">&gt;</span> <span class="identifier">getConfigParam</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">string</span> <span class="identifier">name</span><span class="special">);</span> <span class="comment">// return either an int or a `not-an-int`</span>
<span class="keyword">int</span> <span class="identifier">main</span><span class="special">()</span>
<span class="special">{</span>
<span class="keyword">if</span> <span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="keyword">int</span><span class="special">&gt;</span> <span class="identifier">oi</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">getConfigParam</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="string">"MaxValue"</span><span class="special">))</span> <span class="comment">// did I get a real int?</span>
<span class="identifier">runWithMax</span><span class="special">(*</span><span class="identifier">oi</span><span class="special">);</span> <span class="comment">// use my int</span>
<span class="keyword">else</span>
<span class="identifier">runWithNoMax</span><span class="special">();</span>
<span class="special">}</span>
</pre>
</div>
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<td align="right"><div class="copyright-footer">Copyright &#169; 2003-2007 Fernando Luis Cacciola Carballal<br>Copyright &#169; 2014 Andrzej Krzemie&#324;ski<p>
Distributed under the Boost Software License, Version 1.0. (See accompanying
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<p>
Suppose we want to read a parameter form a config file which represents some
integral value, let's call it <code class="computeroutput"><span class="string">"MaxValue"</span></code>.
It is possible that this parameter is not specified; such situation is no
error. It is valid to not specify the parameter and in that case the program
is supposed to behave slightly different. Also suppose that any possible
value of type <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">int</span></code> is a valid
value for <code class="computeroutput"><span class="string">"MaxValue"</span></code>,
so we cannot jut use <code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">-</span><span class="number">1</span></code>
to represent the absence of the parameter in the config file.
</p>
</div>
<table xmlns:rev="http://www.cs.rpi.edu/~gregod/boost/tools/doc/revision" width="100%"><tr>
<td align="left"></td>
<td align="right"><div class="copyright-footer">Copyright &#169; 2003-2007 Fernando Luis Cacciola Carballal<br>Copyright &#169; 2014 Andrzej Krzemie&#324;ski<p>
Distributed under the Boost Software License, Version 1.0. (See accompanying
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<p>
This is how you solve it with <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">optional</span></code>:
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="preprocessor">#include</span> <span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">hpp</span><span class="special">&gt;</span>
<span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="keyword">int</span><span class="special">&gt;</span> <span class="identifier">getConfigParam</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">string</span> <span class="identifier">name</span><span class="special">);</span> <span class="comment">// return either an int or a `not-an-int`</span>
<span class="keyword">int</span> <span class="identifier">main</span><span class="special">()</span>
<span class="special">{</span>
<span class="keyword">if</span> <span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="keyword">int</span><span class="special">&gt;</span> <span class="identifier">oi</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">getConfigParam</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="string">"MaxValue"</span><span class="special">))</span> <span class="comment">// did I get a real int?</span>
<span class="identifier">runWithMax</span><span class="special">(*</span><span class="identifier">oi</span><span class="special">);</span> <span class="comment">// use my int</span>
<span class="keyword">else</span>
<span class="identifier">runWithNoMax</span><span class="special">();</span>
<span class="special">}</span>
</pre>
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<dt><span class="section"><a href="../boost_optional/tutorial/type_requirements.html">Type requirements</a></span></dt>
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