| Copyright: | +From "C++ Template Metaprogramming," by David Abrahams and + Aleksey Gurtovoy. Copyright (c) 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc. + Reprinted with permission. | +
|---|---|
| ISBN: | +0321227255 | +
Even with the full power of template metaprogramming and the Boost Metaprogramming library + at our disposal, some C++ coding jobs still require a great deal of + boilerplate code repetition. We saw one example in Chapter 5, when we + implemented tiny_size:
+template <class T0, class T1, class T2>
+struct tiny_size
+ : mpl::int_<3> {};
+
+
+
+ Aside from the repeated pattern in the parameter list of the primary + template above, there are three partial specializations below, which + also follow a predictable pattern:
+template <class T0, class T1>
+struct tiny_size<T0,T1,none>
+ : mpl::int_<2> {};
+
+template <class T0>
+struct tiny_size<T0,none,none>
+ : mpl::int_<1> {};
+
+template <>
+struct tiny_size<none,none,none>
+ : mpl::int_<0> {};
+
+
+
+ In this case there is only a small amount of code with such a + "mechanical" flavor, but had we been implementing large instead of tiny, there might easily have been a great + deal more. When the number of instances of a pattern grows beyond two + or three, writing them by hand tends to become error-prone. Perhaps + more importantly, the code gets hard to read, because the important + abstraction in the code is really the pattern, not the individual + instances.
+Rather than being written out by hand, mechanical-looking code + should really be generated mechanically. Having written a program to + spit out instances of the code pattern, a library author has two + choices: She can either ship pre-generated source code files, or she + can ship the generator itself. Either approach has drawbacks. If + clients only get the generated source, they are stuck with whatever + the library author generated—and experience shows that if they are + happy with three instances of a pattern today, someone will need + four tomorrow. If clients get the generator program, on the other + hand, they also need the resources to execute it (e.g., + interpreters), and they must integrate the generator into their + build processes...
+...unless the generator is a preprocessor metaprogram. Though not + designed for that purpose, the C and C++ preprocessors can be made + to execute sophisticated programs during the preprocessing phase of + compilation. Users can control the code generation process with + preprocessor #defines + in code or -D + options on the compiler's command line, making build integration + trivial. For example, we might parameterize the primary tiny_size template above as follows:
+#include <boost/preprocessor/repetition/enum_params.hpp>
+
+#ifndef TINY_MAX_SIZE
+# define TINY_MAX_SIZE 3 // default maximum size is 3
+#endif
+
+template <BOOST_PP_ENUM_PARAMS(TINY_MAX_SIZE, class T)>
+struct tiny_size
+ : mpl::int_<TINY_MAX_SIZE>
+{};
+
+
+
+ To test the metaprogram, run your compiler in its "preprocessing" + mode (usually the -E + option), with the Boost root directory in your #include path. For instance:[1]
+g++ -P -E -Ipath/to/boost_1_32_0 -I. test.cpp ++ +
| [1] | +GCC's -P + option inhibits the generation of source file and line number + markers in preprocessed output. | +
Given the appropriate metaprograms, users would be able to adjust + not only the number of parameters to tiny_size, but the maximum size of the + entire tiny + implementation just by #define-ing + TINY_MAX_SIZE.
+The Boost Preprocessor library [MK04] plays a role in preprocessor + metaprogramming similar to the one played by the MPL in template + metaprogramming: It supplies a framework of high-level components + (like BOOST_PP_ENUM_PARAMS) + that make otherwise-painful metaprogramming jobs approachable. In + this appendix we won't attempt to cover nitty-gritty details of how + the preprocessor works, nor principles of preprocessor + metaprogramming in general, nor even many details of how the + Preprocessor library works. We will show you + enough at a high level that you'll be able to use the library + productively and learn the rest on your own.
+| [MK04] | +Paul Mensonides and Vesa Karvonen. "The Boost Preprocessor + Library." http://www.boost.org/libs/preprocessor. | +
We began our discussion of template metaprogramming in Chapter 2 by + describing its metadata (potential template arguments) and + metafunctions (class templates). On the basis of those two fundamental + abstractions, we built up the entire picture of compile-time + computation covered in the rest of this book. In this section we'll + lay a similar foundation for the preprocessor metaprogrammer. Some of + what we cover here may be a review for you, but it's important to + identify the basic concepts going into detail.
+The fundamental unit of data in the preprocessor is the preprocessing + token. Preprocessing tokens correspond roughly to the + tokens you're used to working with in C++, such as identifiers, + operator symbols, and literals. Technically, there are some + differences between preprocessing tokens and regular tokens + (see section 2 of the C++ standard for details), but they can be + ignored for the purposes of this discussion. In fact, we'll be using + the terms interchangeably here.
+Preprocessor macros come in two flavors. Object-like + macros can be defined this way:
+++ +++#define + identifier replacement-list+
where the identifier names the macro being defined, and replacement-list + is a sequence of zero or more tokens. Where the identifier + appears in subsequent program text, it is expanded + by the preprocessor into its replacement-list.
+Function-like macros, which act as the + "metafunctions of the preprocessing phase," are defined as follows:
+++ +++#define + identifier(a1, a2, + ... an) replacement-list+
where each ai is an identifier naming a macro + parameter. When the macro name appears in subsequent + program text followed by a suitable argument list, it is expanded + into its replacement-list, except that each argument is + substituted for the corresponding parameter where it appears in the + replacement-list.[2]
+| [2] | +We have omitted many details of how macro expansion works. + We encourage you to take a few minutes to study section 16.3 + of the C++ standard, which describes that process in + straightforward terms. | +
Definition
+A macro argument is a nonempty sequence of:
+This definition has consequences for preprocessor metaprogramming + that must not be underestimated. Note, first of all, that the + following tokens have special status:
+++ +, ( ) +
As a result, a macro argument can never contain an unmatched + parenthesis, or a comma that is not surrounded by matched + parentheses. For example, both lines following the definition of FOO + below are ill-formed:
+#define FOO(X) X // Unary identity macro +FOO(,) // un-parenthesized comma or two empty arguments +FOO()) // unmatched parenthesis or missing argument ++ +
Note also that the following tokens do not have special + status; the preprocessor knows nothing about matched pairs of + braces, brackets, or angle brackets:
+
+ { } [ ] < >
+
+
+ As a result, these lines are also ill-formed:
+FOO(std::pair<int, long>) // two arguments
+FOO({ int x = 1, y = 2; return x+y; }) // two arguments
+
+
+ It is possible to pass either string of tokens above as + part of a single macro argument, provided it is parenthesized:
+FOO((std::pair<int,int>)) // one argument
+FOO(({ int x = 1, y = 2; return x+y; })) // one argument
+
+
+ However, because of the special status of commas, it is impossible + to strip parentheses from a macro argument without knowing the + number of comma-separated token sequences it contains.[3] If you are writing a macro + that needs to be able to accept an argument containing a variable + number of commas, your users will either have to parenthesize that + argument and pass you the number of comma-separated token + sequences as an additional argument, or they will have to encode the + same information in one of the preprocessor data structures covered + later in this appendix.
+| [3] | +(1, 2) The C99 preprocessor, by virtue + of its variadic macros, can do that and more. The C++ + standardization committee is likely to adopt C99's + preprocessor extensions for the next version of the C++ + standard. | +
Since in-depth coverage of the Boost Preprocessor library is beyond + the scope of this book, we'll try to give you the tools to + gain an in-depth understanding of the library here. To do that, you'll + need to use the electronic Preprocessor library documentation, which + begins with the index.html file in the libs/preprocessor/ subdirectory of your + Boost installation.
+On the left of your browser window you'll see an index, and if you + follow the "Headers" link, it will reveal the structure of the boost/preprocessor/ directory. Most of the + library's headers are grouped into subdirectories according to related + functionality. The top-level directory contains only a few headers + that provide general-purpose macros, along with a header for each + subdirectory that simply #includes + all the headers in that subdirectory. For example, boost/preprocessor/selection.hpp does + nothing more than to #include + the min.hpp + and max.hpp + headers that comprise the contents of boost/preprocessor/selection/. The headers + whose names don't correspond to subdirectories generally + declare a macro whose name is the same as the name of the header, + without the extension, and with a BOOST_PP_ prefix. For example, boost/preprocessor/selection/max.hpp + declares BOOST_PP_MAX.
+You'll also notice that often a header will declare an additional + macro with a _D, + _R, or _Z suffix.[4] + For instance, boost/preprocessor/selection/max.hpp + also declares BOOST_PP_MAX_D. + For the purposes of this appendix, you should ignore those macros. + Eventually you will want to understand how they can be used to + optimize preprocessing speed; consult the Topics section of the + library documentation under the subheading "reentrancy" for that + information.
+| [4] | +Macros with _1ST, + _2ND, + or _3RD + suffixes, if they appear, should be ignored for a different + reason: They are deprecated and will be removed from the library + soon. | +
In this section we'll discuss the basic abstractions of the + Preprocessor library, and give some simple examples of each.
+The repeated generation of class + T0, class T1... class Tn + that we achieved using BOOST_PP_ENUM_PARAMS + was a specific case of the general concept of horizontal + repetition. The library also has a concept of vertical + repetition, which we'll get to in a moment. Horizontal repetition + macros are all found in the library's repetition/ subdirectory.
+To generate the tiny_size + specializations using horizontal repetition, we might write the + following:
+#include <boost/preprocessor/repetition.hpp>
+#include <boost/preprocessor/arithmetic/sub.hpp>
+#include <boost/preprocessor/punctuation/comma_if.hpp>
+
+#define TINY_print(z, n, data) data
+
+#define TINY_size(z, n, unused) \
+ template <BOOST_PP_ENUM_PARAMS(n, class T)> \
+ struct tiny_size< \
+ BOOST_PP_ENUM_PARAMS(n,T) \
+ BOOST_PP_COMMA_IF(n) \
+ BOOST_PP_ENUM( \
+ BOOST_PP_SUB(TINY_MAX_SIZE,n), TINY_print, none) \
+ > \
+ : mpl::int_<n> {};
+
+BOOST_PP_REPEAT(TINY_MAX_SIZE, TINY_size, ~)
+
+#undef TINY_size
+#undef TINY_print
+
+
+ The code generation process is kicked off by calling BOOST_PP_REPEAT, a higher-order + macro that repeatedly invokes the macro named by its + second argument (TINY_size). + The first argument specifies the number of repeated invocations, + and the third one can be any data; it is passed on unchanged to + the macro being invoked. In this case, TINY_size doesn't use that data, so + the choice to pass ~ + was arbitrary.[5]
+| [5] | +~ + is not an entirely arbitrary choice. Both @ and $ might have been good choices, + except that they are technically not part of the basic + character set that C++ implementations are required to + support. An identifier like ignored might be subject to + macro expansion, leading to unexpected results. | +
Each time the TINY_size + macro is invoked by BOOST_PP_REPEAT, + it generates a different specialization of tiny_size. The macro accepts three + parameters.
+Because its replacement-list covers several lines, all + but the last line of TINY_size + is continued with a trailing backslash. The first few of those + lines just invoke BOOST_PP_ENUM_PARAMS + (which we already used in the primary template) to generate + comma-separated lists, so each invocation of TINY_size produces something + equivalent to:[6]
+template <class T0, class T1, ... class Tn-1>
+struct tiny_size<
+ T0, T1, ... Tn-1
+ ...more...
+>
+ : mpl::int_<n> {};
+
+ | [6] | +Note that the line continuation characters and + the newlines following them are removed by the preprocessor, + so the resulting code actually appears on a single line in + the preprocessed output. | +
BOOST_PP_COMMA_IF + generates a comma if its numeric argument is not 0. When n is 0, the list generated by the preceding + line will be empty, and a leading comma directly following the < + character would be ill-formed.
+The next line uses BOOST_PP_ENUM + to generate TINY_MAX_SIZE-n + comma-separated copies of none. + BOOST_PP_ENUM + is just like BOOST_PP_REPEAT + except that it generates commas between repetitions, so its second + argument (TINY_print, + here) must have the same signature as TINY_size. In this case, TINY_print ignores its repetition + index n, + and simply yields its third argument, none.
+BOOST_PP_SUB + implements token subtraction. It's crucial to understand that + although the preprocessor itself can evaluate ordinary + arithmetic expressions:
+#define X 3 +... +#if X - 1 > 0 // OK + whatever +#endif ++ + +
preprocessor metaprograms can only operate on tokens. + Normally, when a macro in the Preprocessor library expects a + numeric argument, it must be passed as a single token. If we had + written TINY_MAX_SIZE-n + instead of BOOST_PP_SUB(TINY_MAX_SIZE,n) + above, the first argument to BOOST_PP_ENUM + would have contained three tokens at each invocation: first 3-0, then 3-1, and finally 3-2. BOOST_PP_SUB, though, generates + single-token results: first 3, + then 2, + and finally 1, + in successive repetitions.
+ +If you send the previous example through your preprocessor, + you'll see one long line containing something like this:
+template <> struct tiny_size< none , none , none > : mpl::int_<0>
+ {}; template < class T0> struct tiny_size< T0 , none , none > :
+mpl::int_<1> {}; template < class T0 , class T1> struct tiny_size
+< T0 , T1 , none > : mpl::int_<2> {};
+
+
+ The distinguishing feature of horizontal repetition is that all + instances of the repeated pattern are generated on the same line + of preprocessed output. For some jobs, like generating the primary + tiny_size + template, that's perfectly appropriate. In this case, however, + there are at least two disadvantages.
++++
++ + + + +[7] +That said, other preprocessors can handle 256 * 256 + nested repetitions without any speed problems whatsoever. +
The solution to these problems, naturally, is vertical + repetition, which generates instances of a pattern + across multiple lines. The Preprocessor library provides two means + of vertical repetition: local iteration and file + iteration.
+The most expedient way to demonstrate local iteration in our + example is to replace the invocation of BOOST_PP_REPEAT with the following:
+#include <boost/preprocessor/iteration/local.hpp> + +#define BOOST_PP_LOCAL_MACRO(n) TINY_size(~, n, ~) +#define BOOST_PP_LOCAL_LIMITS (0, TINY_MAX_SIZE - 1) +#include BOOST_PP_LOCAL_ITERATE() ++ +
Local iteration repeatedly invokes the user-defined macro with + the special name BOOST_PP_LOCAL_MACRO, + whose argument will be an iteration index. Since we already had + TINY_size + lying around, we've just defined BOOST_PP_LOCAL_MACRO to invoke it. + The range of iteration indices are given by another user-defined + macro, BOOST_PP_LOCAL_LIMITS, + which must expand to a parenthesized pair of integer values + representing the inclusive range of index values + passed to BOOST_PP_LOCAL_MACRO. + Note that this is one of the rare places where the library + expects a numeric argument that can be an expression consisting + of multiple tokens.
+Finally, the repetition is initiated by #include-ing the result of invoking + BOOST_PP_LOCAL_ITERATE, + which will ultimately be a file in the Preprocessor library + itself. You may find it surprising that many preprocessors can + handle repeated file inclusion more quickly than nested + horizontal repetition, but that is in fact the case.
+If we throw the new example at our preprocessor, we'll see the + following, on three separate lines in the output:
+template <> struct tiny_size< none , none , none > : mpl::int_<0>
+ {};
+
+template < class T0> struct tiny_size< T0 , none , none > : mpl::
+int_<1> {};
+
+template < class T0 , class T1> struct tiny_size< T0 , T1 , none
+> : mpl::int_<2> {};
+
+
+ That represents a great improvement in verifiability, but it's + still not ideal. As TINY_MAX_SIZE + grows, it gets harder and harder to see that the pattern is + generating what we'd like. If we could get some more line breaks + into the output it would retain a more recognizable form.
+Both repetition methods we've used so far have another + drawback, though it doesn't show up in this example. Consider + what would happen if tiny_size + had a member function that we wanted to debug. If you've ever + tried to use a debugger to step through a function generated by + a preprocessor macro, you know that it's a frustrating + experience at best: The debugger shows you the line from which + the macro was ultimately invoked, which usually looks nothing at + all like the code that was generated. Worse, as far as the + debugger is concerned, every statement in that + generated function occupies that same line.
+Clearly, debuggability depends on preserving the association + between generated code and the lines in the source file that + describe the code pattern. File iteration generates pattern + instances by repeatedly #include-ing + the same source file. The effect of file iteration on + debuggability is similar to that of templates: Although separate + instances appear to occupy the same source lines in the + debugger, we do have the experience of stepping through the + function's source code.
+To apply file iteration in our example, we can replace our + earlier local iteration code and the definition of TINY_size, with:
+#include <boost/preprocessor/iteration/iterate.hpp> +#define BOOST_PP_ITERATION_LIMITS (0, TINY_MAX_SIZE - 1) +#define BOOST_PP_FILENAME_1 "tiny_size_spec.hpp" +#include BOOST_PP_ITERATE() ++
BOOST_PP_ITERATION_LIMITS + follows the same pattern as BOOST_PP_LOCAL_LIMITS did, allowing + us to specify an inclusive range of iteration indices. BOOST_PP_FILENAME_1 specifies the + name of the file to repeatedly #include (we'll show you that file + in a moment). The trailing 1 + indicates that this is the first nesting level of file + iteration—should we need to invoke file iteration again from + within tiny_size_spec.hpp, + we'd need to use BOOST_PP_FILENAME_2 + instead.
+The contents of tiny_size_spec.hpp + should look familiar to you; most of it is the same as TINY_size's replacement-list, + without the backslashes:
+#define n BOOST_PP_ITERATION()
+
+template <BOOST_PP_ENUM_PARAMS(n, class T)>
+struct tiny_size<
+ BOOST_PP_ENUM_PARAMS(n,T)
+ BOOST_PP_COMMA_IF(n)
+ BOOST_PP_ENUM(BOOST_PP_SUB(TINY_MAX_SIZE,n), TINY_print, none)
+>
+ : mpl::int_<n> {};
+
+#undef n
+
+
+ The Library transmits the iteration index to us in the result + of BOOST_PP_ITERATION(); + n is + nothing more than a convenient local macro used to reduce + syntactic noise. Note that we didn't use #include guards because we need tiny_size_spec.hpp + to be processed multiple times.
+The preprocessed result should now preserve the line structure + of the pattern and be more verifiable for larger values of TINY_MAX_SIZE. + For instance, when TINY_MAX_SIZE + is 8, + the following excerpt appears in the output of GCC's + preprocessing phase:
+...
+template < class T0 , class T1 , class T2 , class T3>
+struct tiny_size<
+ T0 , T1 , T2 , T3
+ ,
+ none , none , none , none
+>
+ : mpl::int_<4> {};
+
+template < class T0 , class T1 , class T2 , class T3 , class T4>
+struct tiny_size<
+ T0 , T1 , T2 , T3 , T4
+ ,
+ none , none , none
+>
+ : mpl::int_<5> {};
+...etc.
+
+
+ Creating an entirely new file like tiny_size_spec.hpp each time we want + to express a trivial code pattern for file repetition can be + inconvenient. Fortunately, the library provides a macro that + allows us to place the pattern right in the file that invokes + the iteration. BOOST_PP_IS_ITERATING + is defined to a nonzero value whenever we're inside an + iteration. We can use that value to select between the part of a + file that invokes the iteration and the part that provides the + repeated pattern. Here's a complete tiny_size.hpp file that demonstrates + self-iteration. Note in particular the placement and use of the + #include + guard TINY_SIZE_HPP_INCLUDED:
+#ifndef BOOST_PP_IS_ITERATING
+
+# ifndef TINY_SIZE_HPP_INCLUDED
+# define TINY_SIZE_HPP_INCLUDED
+
+# include <boost/preprocessor/repetition.hpp>
+# include <boost/preprocessor/arithmetic/sub.hpp>
+# include <boost/preprocessor/punctuation/comma_if.hpp>
+# include <boost/preprocessor/iteration/iterate.hpp>
+
+# ifndef TINY_MAX_SIZE
+# define TINY_MAX_SIZE 3 // default maximum size is 3
+# endif
+
+// primary template
+template <BOOST_PP_ENUM_PARAMS(TINY_MAX_SIZE, class T)>
+struct tiny_size
+ : mpl::int_<TINY_MAX_SIZE>
+{};
+
+// generate specializations
+# define BOOST_PP_ITERATION_LIMITS (0, TINY_MAX_SIZE - 1)
+# define BOOST_PP_FILENAME_1 "tiny_size.hpp" // this file
+# include BOOST_PP_ITERATE()
+
+# endif // TINY_SIZE_HPP_INCLUDED
+
+#else // BOOST_PP_IS_ITERATING
+
+# define n BOOST_PP_ITERATION()
+
+# define TINY_print(z, n, data) data
+
+// specialization pattern
+template <BOOST_PP_ENUM_PARAMS(n, class T)>
+struct tiny_size<
+ BOOST_PP_ENUM_PARAMS(n,T)
+ BOOST_PP_COMMA_IF(n)
+ BOOST_PP_ENUM(BOOST_PP_SUB(TINY_MAX_SIZE,n), TINY_print, none)
+>
+ : mpl::int_<n> {};
+
+# undef TINY_print
+# undef n
+
+#endif // BOOST_PP_IS_ITERATING
+
+ There's a good deal more to file iteration than what we've been + able to show you here. For more details, we encourage you to + delve into the library's electronic documentation of BOOST_PP_ITERATE and friends. Also, + it's important to note that no single technique for repetition + is superior to any other: Your choice may depend on convenience, + verifiability, debuggability, compilation speed, and your own + sense of "logical coherence."
+As we mentioned earlier, many of the Preprocessor library + interfaces require single-token numeric arguments, and when those + numbers need to be computed arithmetically, straightforward + arithmetic expressions are inappropriate. We used BOOST_PP_SUB to subtract two numeric + tokens in our tiny_size + examples. The library contains a suite of operations for + non-negative integral token arithmetic in its arithmetic/ subdirectory, as shown in + Table A.1
+| Expression | +Value of Single Token Result | +
|---|---|
| BOOST_PP_ADD(x,y) | +x + y | +
| BOOST_PP_DEC(x) | +x - 1 | +
| BOOST_PP_DIV(x,y) | +x / y | +
| BOOST_PP_INC(x) | +x + 1 | +
| BOOST_PP_MOD(x,y) | +x % y | +
| BOOST_PP_MUL(x,y) | +x * y | +
| BOOST_PP_SUB(x,y) | +x - y | +
The logical/ + subdirectory contains the convenient Boolean token operations shown + in Table A.2 and the more efficient operations shown in Table A.3, + which require that their operands are either 0 or 1 (a single bit).
+| Expression | +Value of Single Token Result | +
|---|---|
| BOOST_PP_AND(x,y) | +x && y | +
| BOOST_PP_NOR(x,y) | +!(x || y) | +
| BOOST_PP_OR(x,y) | +x || y | +
| BOOST_PP_XOR(x,y) | +(bool)x + != (bool)y + ? 1 : 0 | +
| BOOST_PP_NOT(x) | +x ? 0 : + 1 | +
| BOOST_PP_BOOL(x) | +x ? 1 : + 0 | +
| Expression | +Value of Single Token Result | +
|---|---|
| BOOST_PP_BITAND(x,y) | +x && y | +
| BOOST_PP_BITNOR(x,y) | +!(x || y) | +
| BOOST_PP_BITOR(x,y) | +x || y | +
| BOOST_PP_BITXOR(x,y) | +(bool)x + != (bool)y + ? 1 : 0 | +
| BOOST_PP_COMPL(x) | +x ? 0 : + 1 | +
Finally, the comparison/ + subdirectory provides the token integral comparison operations shown + in Table A.4.
+| Expression | +Value of Single Token Result | +
|---|---|
| BOOST_PP_EQUAL(x,y) | +x == y ? 1 : + 0 | +
| BOOST_PP_NOT_EQUAL(x,y) | +x != y ? 1 : + 0 | +
| BOOST_PP_LESS(x,y) | +x < y ? 1 : + 0 | +
| BOOST_PP_LESS_EQUAL(x,y) | +x <= y ? 1 : + 0 | +
| BOOST_PP_GREATER(x,y) | +x > y ? 1 : + 0 | +
| BOOST_PP_GREATER_EQUAL(x,y) | +x >= y ? 1 : + 0 | +
Because it's common to have a choice among several workable + comparison operators, it may be useful to know that BOOST_PP_EQUAL and BOOST_PP_NOT_EQUAL are likely to be O(1) + while the other comparison operators are generally slower.
+In its control/ + directory, the Preprocessor Library supplies a macro BOOST_PP_IF(c,t,f) that fulfills a + similar role to the one filled by mpl::if_. To explore the "control" + group, we'll generate code for a framework of generic function + objects: the Boost Function Library.[8] boost::function is partially specialized + to match function type arguments of each arity up to the maximum + supported by the library:
+template <class Signature> struct function; // primary template + +template <class R> // arity = 0 +struct function<R()> + definition not shown... + +template <class R, class A0> // arity = 1 +struct function<R(A0)> + definition not shown... + +template <class R, class A0, class A1> // arity = 2 +struct function<R(A0,A1)> + definition not shown... + +template <class R, class A0, class A1, class A2> // arity = 3 +struct function<R(A0,A1,A2)> + definition not shown... + +etc. ++ +
| [8] | +We touched briefly on the design of Boost Function when we + discussed type erasure in Chapter 9. See the Function library + documentation at boost_1_32_0/libs/function/index.html + on the CD that accompanies this book for more information. | +
We've already covered a few strategies that can be used to generate + the pattern above, so we won't belabor that part of the problem; the + file iteration approach we used for tiny_size would be fine:
+#ifndef BOOST_PP_IS_ITERATING + +# ifndef BOOST_FUNCTION_HPP_INCLUDED +# define BOOST_FUNCTION_HPP_INCLUDED + +# include <boost/preprocessor/repetition.hpp> +# include <boost/preprocessor/iteration/iterate.hpp> + +# ifndef FUNCTION_MAX_ARITY +# define FUNCTION_MAX_ARITY 15 +# endif + +template <class Signature> struct function; // primary template + +// generate specializations +# define BOOST_PP_ITERATION_LIMITS (0, FUNCTION_MAX_ARITY) +# define BOOST_PP_FILENAME_1 "boost/function.hpp" // this file +# include BOOST_PP_ITERATE() + +# endif // BOOST_FUNCTION_HPP_INCLUDED + +#else // BOOST_PP_IS_ITERATING + +# define n BOOST_PP_ITERATION() + +// specialization pattern +template <class R BOOST_PP_ENUM_TRAILING_PARAMS(n, class A)> +struct function<R ( BOOST_PP_ENUM_PARAMS(n,A) )> + definition not shown... + +# undef n + +#endif // BOOST_PP_IS_ITERATING ++
BOOST_PP_ENUM_TRAILING_PARAMS, + used above, is just like BOOST_PP_ENUM_PARAMS + except that when its first argument is not 0, it generates a leading comma.
+ +For the sake of interoperability with C++ standard library + algorithms, it might be nice if functions of one or two arguments were + derived from appropriate specializations of std::unary_function or std::binary_function, respectively.[9] + BOOST_PP_IF + is a great tool for dealing with special cases:
+# include <boost/preprocessor/control/if.hpp>
+# include <boost/preprocessor/comparison/equal.hpp>
+
+// specialization pattern
+template <class R BOOST_PP_ENUM_TRAILING_PARAMS(n, class A)>
+struct function<R ( BOOST_PP_ENUM_PARAMS(n,A) )>
+ BOOST_PP_IF(
+ BOOST_PP_EQUAL(n,2), : std::binary_function<A0, A1, R>
+ , BOOST_PP_IF(
+ BOOST_PP_EQUAL(n,1), : std::unary_function<A0, R>
+ , ...empty argument...
+ )
+ )
+{ ...class body omitted... };
+
+
+ | [9] | +While derivation from std::unary_function or std::binary_function might be + necessary for interoperability with some older library + implementations, it may inhibit the Empty Base Optimization + (EBO) from taking effect when two such derived classes are + part of the same object. For more information, see section + 9.4. In general, it's better to expose first_argument_type, second_argument_type, and result_type typedefs directly. | +
Well, our first attempt has run into several problems. First off, + you're not allowed to pass an empty argument to the preprocessor.[3] + Secondly, because angle brackets don't get special treatment, the + commas in the std::unary_function + and std::binary_function + specializations above are treated as macro argument separators, + and the preprocessor will complain that we've passed the wrong + number of arguments to BOOST_PP_IF + in two places.
+Because it captures all of the issues, let's focus on the inner BOOST_PP_IF + invocation for a moment. The strategy that mpl::eval_if uses, of selecting a + nullary function to invoke, could work nicely here. The + preprocessor doesn't have a direct analogue for mpl::eval_if, but it doesn't really + need one: We can get the right effect by adding a second set of + parentheses to BOOST_PP_IF.
+#define BOOST_FUNCTION_unary() : std::unary_function<A0,R> +#define BOOST_FUNCTION_empty() // nothing + +... + + , BOOST_PP_IF( + BOOST_PP_EQUAL(n,1), BOOST_FUNCTION_unary + , BOOST_FUNCTION_empty + )() + +#undef BOOST_FUNCTION_empty +#undef BOOST_FUNCTION_unary ++ +
A nullary macro that generates nothing is so commonly needed that + the library's "facilities" group provides one: BOOST_PP_EMPTY. To complete the + example we'll need to delay evaluation all the way to the outer BOOST_PP_IF + invocation, because std::binary_function<A0,A1,R> + also has a "comma problem":
+# include <boost/preprocessor/facilities/empty.hpp>
+
+# define BOOST_FUNCTION_binary() : std::binary_function<A0,A1,R>
+# define BOOST_FUNCTION_unary() : std::unary_function<A0,R>
+
+// specialization pattern
+template <class R BOOST_PP_ENUM_TRAILING_PARAMS(n, class A)>
+struct function<R ( BOOST_PP_ENUM_PARAMS(n,A) )>
+ BOOST_PP_IF(
+ BOOST_PP_EQUAL(n,2), BOOST_FUNCTION_binary
+ , BOOST_PP_IF(
+ BOOST_PP_EQUAL(n,1), BOOST_FUNCTION_unary
+ , BOOST_PP_EMPTY
+ )
+ )()
+{
+ ...class body omitted...
+};
+
+# undef BOOST_FUNCTION_unary
+# undef BOOST_FUNCTION_binary
+# undef n
+
+
+ Note that because we happened to be using file iteration, we + could have also used #if + on n's + value directly:
+template <class R BOOST_PP_ENUM_TRAILING_PARAMS(n, class A)> + struct function<R ( BOOST_PP_ENUM_PARAMS(n,A) )> +#if n == 2 + : std::binary_function<A0, A1, R> +#elif n == 1 + : std::unary_function<A0, R> +#endif ++ +
BOOST_PP_IF + has the advantage of enabling us to encapsulate the logic in a + reusable macro, parameterized on n, that is compatible with all + repetition constructs:
+#define BOOST_FUNCTION_BASE(n) \ + BOOST_PP_IF(BOOST_PP_EQUAL(n,2), BOOST_FUNCTION_binary \ + , BOOST_PP_IF(BOOST_PP_EQUAL(n,1), BOOST_FUNCTION_unary \ + , BOOST_PP_EMPTY \ + ) \ + )() ++
BOOST_PP_IDENTITY, + also in the "facilities" group, is an interesting cousin of BOOST_PP_EMPTY:
+#define BOOST_PP_IDENTITY(tokens) tokens BOOST_PP_EMPTY ++ +
You can think of it as creating a nullary macro that returns tokens: + When empty parentheses are appended, the trailing BOOST_PP_EMPTY is expanded leaving + just tokens + behind. If we had wanted inheritance from mpl::empty_base when function's arity is not one or two, we + could have used BOOST_PP_IDENTITY:
+// specialization pattern
+template <class R BOOST_PP_ENUM_TRAILING_PARAMS(n, class A)>
+struct function<R ( BOOST_PP_ENUM_PARAMS(n,A) )>
+ BOOST_PP_IF(
+ BOOST_PP_EQUAL(n,2), BOOST_FUNCTION_binary
+ , BOOST_PP_IF(
+ BOOST_PP_EQUAL(n,1), BOOST_FUNCTION_unary
+ , BOOST_PP_IDENTITY(: mpl::empty_base)
+ )
+ )()
+{
+ ...class body omitted...
+};
+
+
+ It's also worth knowing about BOOST_PP_EXPR_IF, which generates its + second argument or nothing, depending on the Boolean value of its + first:
+#define BOOST_PP_EXPR_IF(c,tokens) \ + BOOST_PP_IF(c,BOOST_PP_IDENTITY(tokens),BOOST_PP_EMPTY)() ++ +
So BOOST_PP_EXPR_IF(1,foo) + expands to foo, + while BOOST_PP_EXPR_IF(0,foo) + expands to nothing.
+It would be nice if there were a generic way to access the return + and parameter types of all function objects, rather than + just the unary and binary ones. A metafunction returning the + signature as an MPL sequence would do the trick. We could just + specialize signature + for each function + arity:
+template <class F> struct signature; // primary template
+
+// partial specializations for boost::function
+template <class R>
+struct signature<function<R()> >
+ : mpl::vector1<R> {};
+
+template <class R, class A0>
+struct signature<function<R(A0)> >
+ : mpl::vector2<R,A0> {};
+
+template <class R, class A0, class A1>
+struct signature<function<R(A0,A1)> >
+ : mpl::vector3<R,A0,A1> {};
+
+...
+
+
+ To generate these specializations, we might add the following to + our pattern:
+template <class R BOOST_PP_ENUM_TRAILING_PARAMS(n, class A)>
+struct signature<function<R( BOOST_PP_ENUM_PARAMS(n,A) )> >
+ : mpl::BOOST_PP_CAT(vector,n)<
+ R BOOST_PP_ENUM_TRAILING_PARAMS(n,A)
+ > {};
+
+
+ BOOST_PP_CAT + implements token pasting; its two arguments are + "glued" together into a single token. Since this is a + general-purpose macro, it sits in cat.hpp at the top level of the + library's directory tree.
+Although the preprocessor has a built-in token-pasting operator, ##, it only + works within a macro definition. If we'd used it here, it wouldn't + have taken effect at all:
+template <class R>
+struct signature<function<R()> >
+ : mpl::vector##1<R> {};
+
+template <class R, class A0>
+struct signature<function<R(A0)> >
+ : mpl::vector##2<R,A0> {};
+
+template <class R, class A0, class A1>
+struct signature<function<R(A0,A1)> >
+ : mpl::vector##3<R,A0,A1> {};
+
+...
+
+
+ Also, ## + often yields surprising results by taking effect before its + arguments have been expanded:
+#define N 10 +#define VEC(i) vector##i + +VEC(N) // vectorN ++ +
By contrast, BOOST_PP_CAT + delays concatenation until after its arguments have been fully + evaluated:
+#define N 10 +#define VEC(i) BOOST_PP_CAT(vector,i) + +VEC(N) // vector10 ++ +
The Preprocessor library also provides data types, + which you can think of as being analogous to the MPL's type + sequences. Preprocessor data types store macro arguments + instead of C++ types.
+A sequence (or seq for short) + is any string of nonempty parenthesized macro arguments. + For instance, here's a three-element sequence:
+#define MY_SEQ (f(12))(a + 1)(foo) ++ +
Here's how we might use a sequence to generate specializations of + the is_integral + template from the Boost Type Traits library (see Chapter 2):
+#include <boost/preprocessor/seq.hpp>
+
+template <class T>
+struct is_integral : mpl::false_ {};
+
+// a seq of integral types with unsigned counterparts
+#define BOOST_TT_basic_ints (char)(short)(int)(long)
+
+// generate a seq containing "signed t" and "unsigned t"
+#define BOOST_TT_int_pair(r,data,t) (signed t)(unsigned t)
+
+// a seq of all the integral types
+#define BOOST_TT_ints \
+ (bool)(char) \
+ BOOST_PP_SEQ_FOR_EACH(BOOST_TT_int_pair, ~, BOOST_TT_basic_ints)
+
+// generate an is_integral specialization for type t
+#define BOOST_TT_is_integral_spec(r,data,t) \
+ template <> \
+ struct is_integral<t> : mpl::true_ {};
+
+BOOST_PP_SEQ_FOR_EACH(BOOST_TT_is_integral_spec, ~, BOOST_TT_ints)
+
+#undef BOOST_TT_is_integral_spec
+#undef BOOST_TT_ints
+#undef BOOST_TT_int_pair
+#undef BOOST_TT_basic_ints
+
+
+ BOOST_PP_SEQ_FOR_EACH + is a higher-order macro, similar to BOOST_PP_REPEAT, that invokes its + first argument on each element of its third argument.
+Sequences are the most efficient, most flexible, and + easiest-to-use of the library's data structures, provided that you + never need to make an empty one: An empty sequence would contain + no tokens, and so couldn't be passed as a macro argument. The + other data structures covered here all have an empty + representation.
+The facilities for manipulating sequences are all in the + library's seq/ + subdirectory. They are summarized in Table A.5, where t is the sequence (t0)(t1)...(tk). Where s, r, and + d appear, they have a similar purpose to the z parameters we discussed earlier (and + suggested you ignore for now).
+| Expression | +Result | +
|---|---|
| BOOST_PP_SEQ_CAT(t) | +t0t1...tk | +
| BOOST_PP_SEQ_ELEM(n,t) | +tn | +
| BOOST_PP_SEQ_ENUM(t) | +t0, t1, ...tk | +
| BOOST_PP_SEQ_FILTER(pred,data,t) | +t + without the elements that don't satisfy pred | +
| BOOST_PP_SEQ_FIRST_N(n,t) | +(t0)(t1)...(tn-1) | +
| BOOST_PP_SEQ_FOLD_LEFT(op, + x, t) | +...op(s,op(s,op(s,x,t0),t1),t2)... | +
| BOOST_PP_SEQ_FOLD_RIGHT(op, + x, t) | +...op(s,op(s,op(s,x,tk),tk-1), + tk-2)... | +
| BOOST_PP_SEQ_FOR_EACH(f, + x, t) | +f(r, x,t0) f(r, x,t1)...f(r, x,tk) | +
| BOOST_PP_SEQ_FOR_EACH_I(g, + x, t) | +g(r, x, 0, + t0) + g(r, x, 1, t1)... g(r, x, k, tk) | +
| BOOST_PP_SEQ_FOR_EACH_PRODUCT(h, + x, t) | +
+
|
+
| BOOST_PP_SEQ_INSERT(t,i,tokens) | +(t0)(t1)...(ti-1)(tokens) + (ti)(ti+1)...(tk) | +
| BOOST_PP_SEQ_POP_BACK(t) | +(t0)(t1)...(tk-1) | +
| BOOST_PP_SEQ_POP_FRONT(t) | +(t1)(t2)...(tk) | +
| BOOST_PP_SEQ_PUSH_BACK(t,tokens) | +(t0)(t1)...(tk)(tokens) | +
| BOOST_PP_SEQ_PUSH_FRONT(t,tokens) | +(tokens)(t0)(t1)...(tk) | +
| BOOST_PP_SEQ_REMOVE(t,i) | +(t0)(t1)...(ti-1)(ti+1)...(tk) | +
| BOOST_PP_SEQ_REPLACE(t,i,tokens) | +(t0)(t1)...(ti-1)(tokens)(ti+1)...(tk) | +
| BOOST_PP_SEQ_REST_N(n,t) | +(tn)(tn+1)...(tk) | +
| BOOST_PP_SEQ_REVERSE(t) | +(tk)(tk-1)...(t0) | +
| BOOST_PP_SEQ_HEAD(t) | +t0 | +
| BOOST_PP_SEQ_TAIL(t) | +(t1)(t2)...(tk) | +
| BOOST_PP_SEQ_SIZE(t) | +k+1 | +
| BOOST_PP_SEQ_SUBSEQ(t,i,m) | +(ti)(ti+1)...(ti+m-1) | +
| BOOST_PP_SEQ_TO_ARRAY(t) | +(k+1 + ,(t0,t1,...tk)) | +
| BOOST_PP_SEQ_TO_TUPLE(t) | +(t0, t1,...tk) | +
| BOOST_PP_SEQ_TRANSFORM(f, + x, t) | +(f(r,x,t0)) (f(r,x,t1))...(f(r,x,tk)) | +
It's worth noting that while there is no upper limit on the + length of a sequence, operations such as BOOST_PP_SEQ_ELEM that take numeric + arguments will only work with values up to 256.
+A tuple is a very simple data structure for + which the library provides random access and a few other basic + operations. A tuple takes the form of a parenthesized, + comma-separated list of macro arguments. For example, + this is a three-element tuple:
+#define TUPLE3 (f(12), a + 1, foo) ++
The operations in the library's tuple/ subdirectory can handle tuples + of up to 25 elements. For example, a tuple's Nth element can be accessed via BOOST_PP_TUPLE_ELEM, as follows:
+// length index tuple +BOOST_PP_TUPLE_ELEM( 3 , 1 , TUPLE3) // a + 1 ++ +
Notice that we had to pass the tuple's length as the second + argument to BOOST_PP_TUPLE_ELEM; + in fact, all tuple operations require explicit + specification of the tuple's length. We're not going to summarize + the other four operations in the "tuple" group here—you can + consult the Preprocessor library's electronic documentation for + more details. We note, however, that sequences can be transformed + into tuples with BOOST_PP_SEQ_TO_TUPLE, + and nonempty tuples can be transformed back into sequences with BOOST_PP_TUPLE_TO_SEQ.
+The greatest strength of tuples is that they conveniently take + the same representation as a macro argument list:
+#define FIRST_OF_THREE(a1,a2,a3) a1 +#define SECOND_OF_THREE(a1,a2,a3) a2 +#define THIRD_OF_THREE(a1,a2,a3) a3 + +// uses tuple as an argument list +# define SELECT(selector, tuple) selector tuple + +SELECT(THIRD_OF_THREE, TUPLE3) // foo ++
An array is just a tuple containing a + non-negative integer and a tuple of that length:
+#define ARRAY3 ( 3, TUPLE3 ) ++
Because an array carries its length around with it, the library's + interface for operating on arrays is much more convenient than the + one used for tuples:
+BOOST_PP_ARRAY_ELEM(1, ARRAY3) // a + 1 ++ +
The facilities for manipulating arrays of up to 25 elements are + all in the library's array/ + subdirectory. They are summarized in Table A.6, where a is the array (k, (a0,a1,...ak-1)).
+| Expression | +Result | +
|---|---|
| BOOST_PP_ARRAY_DATA(a) | +(a0,a1,... + ak-1) | +
| BOOST_PP_ARRAY_ELEM(i,a) | +ai | +
| BOOST_PP_ARRAY_INSERT(a, + i, tokens) | +(k+1,(a0,a1,...ai-1, tokens, ai,ai+1,... + ak-1)) | +
| BOOST_PP_ARRAY_POP_BACK(a) | +(k-1,(a0,a1,... + ak-2)) | +
| BOOST_PP_ARRAY_POP_FRONT(a) | +(k-1,(a1,a2,... + ak-1)) | +
| BOOST_PP_ARRAY_PUSH_BACK(a, + tokens) | +(k+1,(a0,a1,... + ak-1, + tokens)) | +
| BOOST_PP_ARRAY_PUSH_FRONT(a, + tokens) | +(k+1,(tokens, + a1,a2,... + ak-1)) | +
| BOOST_PP_ARRAY_REMOVE(a, + i) | +(k-1,(a0,a1,... + ai-1,ai+1,... + ak-1)) | +
| BOOST_PP_ARRAY_REPLACE(a, + i, tokens) | +(k,(a0,a1,... + ai-1, + tokens, ai+1,... + ak-1)) | +
| BOOST_PP_ARRAY_REVERSE(a) | +(k,(ak-1,ak-2,... + a1,a0)) | +
| BOOST_PP_ARRAY_SIZE(a) | +k | +
A list is a two-element tuple whose first + element is the first element of the list, and whose second element + is a list of the remaining elements, or BOOST_PP_NIL if there are no remaining + elements. Lists have access characteristics similar to those of a + runtime linked list. Here is a three-element list:
+#define LIST3 (f(12), (a + 1, (foo, BOOST_PP_NIL))) ++ +
The facilities for manipulating lists are all in the library's list/ + subdirectory. Because the operations are a subset of those + provided for sequences, we're not going to summarize them here—it + should be easy to understand the list operations by reading the + documentation on the basis of our coverage of sequences.
+Like sequences, lists have no fixed upper length bound. Unlike + sequences, lists can also be empty. It's rare to need more than 25 + elements in a preprocessor data structure, and lists tend to be + slower to manipulate and harder to read than any of the other + structures, so they should normally be used only as a last resort.
+