diff --git a/extras/tests/JsonDocument/MemberProxy.cpp b/extras/tests/JsonDocument/MemberProxy.cpp
index 49112237..261cb271 100644
--- a/extras/tests/JsonDocument/MemberProxy.cpp
+++ b/extras/tests/JsonDocument/MemberProxy.cpp
@@ -10,6 +10,8 @@
 
 #include <catch.hpp>
 
+#include "Allocators.hpp"
+
 using ArduinoJson::detail::sizeofArray;
 using ArduinoJson::detail::sizeofObject;
 using ArduinoJson::detail::sizeofString;
@@ -388,3 +390,19 @@ TEST_CASE("Deduplicate keys") {
     CHECK(key1 == key2);
   }
 }
+
+TEST_CASE("MemberProxy under memory constraints") {
+  ControllableAllocator allocator;
+  JsonDocument doc(4096, &allocator);
+
+  SECTION("key allocation fails") {
+    allocator.disable();
+
+    doc[std::string("hello")] = "world";
+
+    REQUIRE(doc.is<JsonObject>());
+    REQUIRE(doc.size() == 0);
+    REQUIRE(doc.memoryUsage() == sizeofObject(1));
+    REQUIRE(doc.overflowed() == true);
+  }
+}
diff --git a/extras/tests/JsonVariant/copy.cpp b/extras/tests/JsonVariant/copy.cpp
index 3e7a93ec..636fe1b6 100644
--- a/extras/tests/JsonVariant/copy.cpp
+++ b/extras/tests/JsonVariant/copy.cpp
@@ -4,12 +4,15 @@
 
 #include <ArduinoJson.h>
 #include <catch.hpp>
+#include "Allocators.hpp"
 
 using ArduinoJson::detail::sizeofString;
 
 TEST_CASE("JsonVariant::set(JsonVariant)") {
-  JsonDocument doc1(4096);
-  JsonDocument doc2(4096);
+  ControllableAllocator allocator;
+  SpyingAllocator spyingAllocator(&allocator);
+  JsonDocument doc1(4096, &spyingAllocator);
+  JsonDocument doc2(4096, &spyingAllocator);
   JsonVariant var1 = doc1.to<JsonVariant>();
   JsonVariant var2 = doc2.to<JsonVariant>();
 
@@ -37,53 +40,103 @@ TEST_CASE("JsonVariant::set(JsonVariant)") {
 
   SECTION("stores const char* by reference") {
     var1.set("hello!!");
+    spyingAllocator.clearLog();
+
     var2.set(var1);
 
     REQUIRE(doc1.memoryUsage() == 0);
     REQUIRE(doc2.memoryUsage() == 0);
+    REQUIRE(spyingAllocator.log() == AllocatorLog());
   }
 
   SECTION("stores char* by copy") {
     char str[] = "hello!!";
-
     var1.set(str);
+    spyingAllocator.clearLog();
+
     var2.set(var1);
 
     REQUIRE(doc1.memoryUsage() == sizeofString(7));
     REQUIRE(doc2.memoryUsage() == sizeofString(7));
+    REQUIRE(spyingAllocator.log() ==
+            AllocatorLog() << AllocatorLog::Allocate(sizeofString((7))));
+  }
+
+  SECTION("fails gracefully if string allocation fails") {
+    char str[] = "hello!!";
+    var1.set(str);
+    allocator.disable();
+    spyingAllocator.clearLog();
+
+    var2.set(var1);
+
+    REQUIRE(doc1.memoryUsage() == sizeofString(7));
+    REQUIRE(doc2.memoryUsage() == 0);
+    REQUIRE(doc2.overflowed() == true);
+    REQUIRE(spyingAllocator.log() ==
+            AllocatorLog() << AllocatorLog::AllocateFail(sizeofString((7))));
   }
 
   SECTION("stores std::string by copy") {
     var1.set(std::string("hello!!"));
+    spyingAllocator.clearLog();
+
     var2.set(var1);
 
     REQUIRE(doc1.memoryUsage() == sizeofString(7));
     REQUIRE(doc2.memoryUsage() == sizeofString(7));
+    REQUIRE(spyingAllocator.log() ==
+            AllocatorLog() << AllocatorLog::Allocate(sizeofString((7))));
   }
 
   SECTION("stores Serialized<const char*> by reference") {
     var1.set(serialized("hello!!", 8));
+    spyingAllocator.clearLog();
+
     var2.set(var1);
 
     REQUIRE(doc1.memoryUsage() == 0);
     REQUIRE(doc2.memoryUsage() == 0);
+    REQUIRE(spyingAllocator.log() == AllocatorLog());
   }
 
   SECTION("stores Serialized<char*> by copy") {
     char str[] = "hello!!";
     var1.set(serialized(str, 7));
+    spyingAllocator.clearLog();
+
     var2.set(var1);
 
     REQUIRE(doc1.memoryUsage() == sizeofString(7));
     REQUIRE(doc2.memoryUsage() == sizeofString(7));
+    REQUIRE(spyingAllocator.log() ==
+            AllocatorLog() << AllocatorLog::Allocate(sizeofString((7))));
   }
 
   SECTION("stores Serialized<std::string> by copy") {
     var1.set(serialized(std::string("hello!!")));
+    spyingAllocator.clearLog();
+
     var2.set(var1);
 
     REQUIRE(doc1.memoryUsage() == sizeofString(7));
     REQUIRE(doc2.memoryUsage() == sizeofString(7));
+    REQUIRE(spyingAllocator.log() ==
+            AllocatorLog() << AllocatorLog::Allocate(sizeofString((7))));
+  }
+
+  SECTION("fails gracefully if raw string allocation fails") {
+    var1.set(serialized(std::string("hello!!")));
+    allocator.disable();
+    spyingAllocator.clearLog();
+
+    var2.set(var1);
+
+    REQUIRE(doc1.memoryUsage() == sizeofString(7));
+    REQUIRE(doc2.memoryUsage() == 0);
+    REQUIRE(doc2.overflowed() == true);
+    REQUIRE(spyingAllocator.log() ==
+            AllocatorLog() << AllocatorLog::AllocateFail(sizeofString((7))));
   }
 
   SECTION("destination is unbound") {
diff --git a/src/ArduinoJson/Array/JsonArray.hpp b/src/ArduinoJson/Array/JsonArray.hpp
index 00df67ce..96c04a0e 100644
--- a/src/ArduinoJson/Array/JsonArray.hpp
+++ b/src/ArduinoJson/Array/JsonArray.hpp
@@ -6,6 +6,7 @@
 
 #include <ArduinoJson/Array/ElementProxy.hpp>
 #include <ArduinoJson/Array/JsonArrayConst.hpp>
+#include <ArduinoJson/Collection/CollectionFunctions.hpp>
 
 ARDUINOJSON_BEGIN_PUBLIC_NAMESPACE
 
@@ -43,9 +44,7 @@ class JsonArray : public detail::VariantOperators<JsonArray> {
   // Returns a reference to the new element.
   // https://arduinojson.org/v6/api/jsonarray/add/
   JsonVariant add() const {
-    if (!_data)
-      return JsonVariant();
-    return JsonVariant(_pool, _data->addElement(_pool));
+    return JsonVariant(_pool, collectionAddElement(_data, _pool));
   }
 
   // Appends a value to the array.
@@ -79,9 +78,7 @@ class JsonArray : public detail::VariantOperators<JsonArray> {
   // Copies an array.
   // https://arduinojson.org/v6/api/jsonarray/set/
   FORCE_INLINE bool set(JsonArrayConst src) const {
-    if (!_data || !src._data)
-      return false;
-    return _data->copyFrom(*src._data, _pool);
+    return collectionCopy(_data, src._data, _pool);
   }
 
   // Compares the content of two arrays.
@@ -93,27 +90,21 @@ class JsonArray : public detail::VariantOperators<JsonArray> {
   // ⚠️ Doesn't release the memory associated with the removed element.
   // https://arduinojson.org/v6/api/jsonarray/remove/
   FORCE_INLINE void remove(iterator it) const {
-    if (!_data)
-      return;
-    _data->removeSlot(it._slot);
+    collectionRemove(_data, it._slot, _pool);
   }
 
   // Removes the element at the specified index.
   // ⚠️ Doesn't release the memory associated with the removed element.
   // https://arduinojson.org/v6/api/jsonarray/remove/
   FORCE_INLINE void remove(size_t index) const {
-    if (!_data)
-      return;
-    _data->removeElement(index);
+    collectionRemoveElement(_data, index, _pool);
   }
 
   // Removes all the elements of the array.
   // ⚠️ Doesn't release the memory associated with the removed elements.
   // https://arduinojson.org/v6/api/jsonarray/clear/
   void clear() const {
-    if (!_data)
-      return;
-    _data->clear();
+    collectionClear(_data, _pool);
   }
 
   // Gets or sets the element at the specified index.
diff --git a/src/ArduinoJson/Collection/CollectionData.hpp b/src/ArduinoJson/Collection/CollectionData.hpp
index 2c5c8f41..4ca334ef 100644
--- a/src/ArduinoJson/Collection/CollectionData.hpp
+++ b/src/ArduinoJson/Collection/CollectionData.hpp
@@ -11,7 +11,6 @@
 
 ARDUINOJSON_BEGIN_PRIVATE_NAMESPACE
 
-class MemoryPool;
 class VariantData;
 class VariantSlot;
 
@@ -28,30 +27,13 @@ class CollectionData {
 
   // Array only
 
-  VariantData* addElement(MemoryPool* pool);
-
   VariantData* getElement(size_t index) const;
 
-  VariantData* getOrAddElement(size_t index, MemoryPool* pool);
-
-  void removeElement(size_t index);
-
   // Object only
 
-  template <typename TAdaptedString>
-  VariantData* addMember(TAdaptedString key, MemoryPool* pool);
-
   template <typename TAdaptedString>
   VariantData* getMember(TAdaptedString key) const;
 
-  template <typename TAdaptedString>
-  VariantData* getOrAddMember(TAdaptedString key, MemoryPool* pool);
-
-  template <typename TAdaptedString>
-  void removeMember(TAdaptedString key) {
-    removeSlot(getSlot(key));
-  }
-
   template <typename TAdaptedString>
   bool containsKey(const TAdaptedString& key) const;
 
@@ -61,23 +43,21 @@ class CollectionData {
   size_t memoryUsage() const;
   size_t size() const;
 
-  VariantSlot* addSlot(MemoryPool*);
+  void addSlot(VariantSlot*);
   void removeSlot(VariantSlot* slot);
 
-  bool copyFrom(const CollectionData& src, MemoryPool* pool);
-
   VariantSlot* head() const {
     return _head;
   }
 
   void movePointers(ptrdiff_t variantDistance);
 
- private:
   VariantSlot* getSlot(size_t index) const;
 
   template <typename TAdaptedString>
   VariantSlot* getSlot(TAdaptedString key) const;
 
+ private:
   VariantSlot* getPreviousSlot(VariantSlot*) const;
 };
 
diff --git a/src/ArduinoJson/Collection/CollectionFunctions.hpp b/src/ArduinoJson/Collection/CollectionFunctions.hpp
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..9ae96e21
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/ArduinoJson/Collection/CollectionFunctions.hpp
@@ -0,0 +1,93 @@
+// ArduinoJson - https://arduinojson.org
+// Copyright © 2014-2023, Benoit BLANCHON
+// MIT License
+
+#pragma once
+
+#include <ArduinoJson/Collection/CollectionData.hpp>
+
+ARDUINOJSON_BEGIN_PRIVATE_NAMESPACE
+
+inline VariantData* collectionAddElement(CollectionData* array,
+                                         MemoryPool* pool) {
+  if (!array)
+    return nullptr;
+  auto slot = pool->allocVariant();
+  if (!slot)
+    return nullptr;
+  array->addSlot(slot);
+  return slot->data();
+}
+
+template <typename TAdaptedString>
+inline VariantData* collectionAddMember(CollectionData* obj, TAdaptedString key,
+                                        MemoryPool* pool) {
+  ARDUINOJSON_ASSERT(!key.isNull());
+  ARDUINOJSON_ASSERT(obj != nullptr);
+  if (!obj)
+    return nullptr;
+  auto slot = pool->allocVariant();
+  if (!slot)
+    return nullptr;
+  auto storedKey = storeString(pool, key);
+  if (!storedKey)
+    return nullptr;
+  slot->setKey(storedKey);
+  obj->addSlot(slot);
+  return slot->data();
+}
+
+inline void collectionClear(CollectionData* c, MemoryPool* pool) {
+  if (!c)
+    return;
+  for (auto slot = c->head(); slot; slot = slot->next())
+    slotRelease(slot, pool);
+  c->clear();
+}
+
+inline bool collectionCopy(CollectionData* dst, const CollectionData* src,
+                           MemoryPool* pool) {
+  if (!dst || !src)
+    return false;
+
+  collectionClear(dst, pool);
+
+  for (VariantSlot* s = src->head(); s; s = s->next()) {
+    VariantData* var;
+    if (s->key() != 0) {
+      JsonString key(s->key(),
+                     s->ownsKey() ? JsonString::Copied : JsonString::Linked);
+      var = collectionAddMember(dst, adaptString(key), pool);
+    } else {
+      var = collectionAddElement(dst, pool);
+    }
+    if (!variantCopyFrom(var, s->data(), pool))
+      return false;
+  }
+  return true;
+}
+
+inline void collectionRemove(CollectionData* data, VariantSlot* slot,
+                             MemoryPool* pool) {
+  if (!data || !slot)
+    return;
+  data->removeSlot(slot);
+  slotRelease(slot, pool);
+}
+
+inline void collectionRemoveElement(CollectionData* array, size_t index,
+                                    MemoryPool* pool) {
+  if (!array)
+    return;
+  collectionRemove(array, array->getSlot(index), pool);
+}
+
+template <typename TAdaptedString>
+inline void collectionRemoveMember(CollectionData* obj, TAdaptedString key,
+                                   MemoryPool* pool) {
+  if (!obj)
+    return;
+  collectionRemove(obj, obj->getSlot(key), pool);
+}
+
+ARDUINOJSON_END_PRIVATE_NAMESPACE
diff --git a/src/ArduinoJson/Collection/CollectionImpl.hpp b/src/ArduinoJson/Collection/CollectionImpl.hpp
index 0e77fe35..27701688 100644
--- a/src/ArduinoJson/Collection/CollectionImpl.hpp
+++ b/src/ArduinoJson/Collection/CollectionImpl.hpp
@@ -11,41 +11,16 @@
 
 ARDUINOJSON_BEGIN_PRIVATE_NAMESPACE
 
-inline VariantSlot* CollectionData::addSlot(MemoryPool* pool) {
-  VariantSlot* slot = pool->allocVariant();
-  if (!slot)
-    return 0;
+inline void CollectionData::addSlot(VariantSlot* slot) {
+  ARDUINOJSON_ASSERT(slot != nullptr);
 
   if (_tail) {
-    ARDUINOJSON_ASSERT(pool->owns(_tail));  // Can't alter a linked array/object
     _tail->setNextNotNull(slot);
     _tail = slot;
   } else {
     _head = slot;
     _tail = slot;
   }
-
-  slot->clear();
-  return slot;
-}
-
-inline VariantData* CollectionData::addElement(MemoryPool* pool) {
-  return slotData(addSlot(pool));
-}
-
-template <typename TAdaptedString>
-inline VariantData* CollectionData::addMember(TAdaptedString key,
-                                              MemoryPool* pool) {
-  VariantSlot* slot = addSlot(pool);
-  if (!slot)
-    return 0;
-  auto storedKey = storeString(pool, key);
-  if (!storedKey) {
-    removeSlot(slot);
-    return 0;
-  }
-  slot->setKey(storedKey);
-  return slot->data();
 }
 
 inline void CollectionData::clear() {
@@ -58,26 +33,6 @@ inline bool CollectionData::containsKey(const TAdaptedString& key) const {
   return getSlot(key) != 0;
 }
 
-inline bool CollectionData::copyFrom(const CollectionData& src,
-                                     MemoryPool* pool) {
-  clear();
-  for (VariantSlot* s = src._head; s; s = s->next()) {
-    VariantData* var;
-    if (s->key() != 0) {
-      JsonString key(s->key(),
-                     s->ownsKey() ? JsonString::Copied : JsonString::Linked);
-      var = addMember(adaptString(key), pool);
-    } else {
-      var = addElement(pool);
-    }
-    if (!var)
-      return false;
-    if (!var->copyFrom(*s->data(), pool))
-      return false;
-  }
-  return true;
-}
-
 template <typename TAdaptedString>
 inline VariantSlot* CollectionData::getSlot(TAdaptedString key) const {
   if (key.isNull())
@@ -114,42 +69,11 @@ inline VariantData* CollectionData::getMember(TAdaptedString key) const {
   return slot ? slot->data() : 0;
 }
 
-template <typename TAdaptedString>
-inline VariantData* CollectionData::getOrAddMember(TAdaptedString key,
-                                                   MemoryPool* pool) {
-  // ignore null key
-  if (key.isNull())
-    return 0;
-
-  // search a matching key
-  VariantSlot* slot = getSlot(key);
-  if (slot)
-    return slot->data();
-
-  return addMember(key, pool);
-}
-
 inline VariantData* CollectionData::getElement(size_t index) const {
   VariantSlot* slot = getSlot(index);
   return slot ? slot->data() : 0;
 }
 
-inline VariantData* CollectionData::getOrAddElement(size_t index,
-                                                    MemoryPool* pool) {
-  VariantSlot* slot = _head;
-  while (slot && index > 0) {
-    slot = slot->next();
-    index--;
-  }
-  if (!slot)
-    index++;
-  while (index > 0) {
-    slot = addSlot(pool);
-    index--;
-  }
-  return slotData(slot);
-}
-
 inline void CollectionData::removeSlot(VariantSlot* slot) {
   if (!slot)
     return;
@@ -163,10 +87,6 @@ inline void CollectionData::removeSlot(VariantSlot* slot) {
     _tail = prev;
 }
 
-inline void CollectionData::removeElement(size_t index) {
-  removeSlot(getSlot(index));
-}
-
 inline size_t CollectionData::memoryUsage() const {
   size_t total = 0;
   for (VariantSlot* s = _head; s; s = s->next()) {
diff --git a/src/ArduinoJson/Document/JsonDocument.hpp b/src/ArduinoJson/Document/JsonDocument.hpp
index 0fcf261e..4802ece2 100644
--- a/src/ArduinoJson/Document/JsonDocument.hpp
+++ b/src/ArduinoJson/Document/JsonDocument.hpp
@@ -119,7 +119,7 @@ class JsonDocument : public detail::VariantOperators<const JsonDocument&> {
   // https://arduinojson.org/v6/api/jsondocument/clear/
   void clear() {
     _pool.clear();
-    _data.setNull();
+    _data.reset();
   }
 
   // Returns true if the root is of the specified type.
@@ -297,7 +297,7 @@ class JsonDocument : public detail::VariantOperators<const JsonDocument&> {
   // Returns a reference to the new element.
   // https://arduinojson.org/v6/api/jsondocument/add/
   FORCE_INLINE JsonVariant add() {
-    return JsonVariant(&_pool, _data.addElement(&_pool));
+    return JsonVariant(&_pool, variantAddElement(&_data, &_pool));
   }
 
   // Appends a value to the root array.
@@ -318,7 +318,7 @@ class JsonDocument : public detail::VariantOperators<const JsonDocument&> {
   // ⚠️ Doesn't release the memory associated with the removed element.
   // https://arduinojson.org/v6/api/jsondocument/remove/
   FORCE_INLINE void remove(size_t index) {
-    _data.remove(index);
+    variantRemoveElement(getData(), index, getPool());
   }
 
   // Removes a member of the root object.
@@ -327,7 +327,7 @@ class JsonDocument : public detail::VariantOperators<const JsonDocument&> {
   template <typename TChar>
   FORCE_INLINE typename detail::enable_if<detail::IsString<TChar*>::value>::type
   remove(TChar* key) {
-    _data.remove(detail::adaptString(key));
+    variantRemoveMember(getData(), detail::adaptString(key), getPool());
   }
 
   // Removes a member of the root object.
@@ -337,7 +337,7 @@ class JsonDocument : public detail::VariantOperators<const JsonDocument&> {
   FORCE_INLINE
       typename detail::enable_if<detail::IsString<TString>::value>::type
       remove(const TString& key) {
-    _data.remove(detail::adaptString(key));
+    variantRemoveMember(getData(), detail::adaptString(key), getPool());
   }
 
   FORCE_INLINE operator JsonVariant() {
@@ -364,7 +364,7 @@ class JsonDocument : public detail::VariantOperators<const JsonDocument&> {
 
   void moveAssignFrom(JsonDocument& src) {
     _data = src._data;
-    src._data.setNull();
+    src._data.reset();
     _pool = move(src._pool);
   }
 
diff --git a/src/ArduinoJson/Json/JsonDeserializer.hpp b/src/ArduinoJson/Json/JsonDeserializer.hpp
index 4b8e83be..dfee6d9b 100644
--- a/src/ArduinoJson/Json/JsonDeserializer.hpp
+++ b/src/ArduinoJson/Json/JsonDeserializer.hpp
@@ -173,7 +173,7 @@ class JsonDeserializer {
     for (;;) {
       if (memberFilter.allow()) {
         // Allocate slot in array
-        VariantData* value = array.addElement(_pool);
+        VariantData* value = collectionAddElement(&array, _pool);
         if (!value)
           return DeserializationError::NoMemory;
 
@@ -280,11 +280,12 @@ class JsonDeserializer {
           key = _stringStorage.save();
 
           // Allocate slot in object
-          VariantSlot* slot = object.addSlot(_pool);
+          VariantSlot* slot = _pool->allocVariant();
           if (!slot)
             return DeserializationError::NoMemory;
 
           slot->setKey(key);
+          object.addSlot(slot);
 
           variant = slot->data();
         }
diff --git a/src/ArduinoJson/Memory/MemoryPool.hpp b/src/ArduinoJson/Memory/MemoryPool.hpp
index 2ea1d68b..2a294f97 100644
--- a/src/ArduinoJson/Memory/MemoryPool.hpp
+++ b/src/ArduinoJson/Memory/MemoryPool.hpp
@@ -99,7 +99,10 @@ class MemoryPool {
   }
 
   VariantSlot* allocVariant() {
-    return allocRight<VariantSlot>();
+    auto slot = allocRight<VariantSlot>();
+    if (slot)
+      slot->clear();
+    return slot;
   }
 
   template <typename TAdaptedString>
diff --git a/src/ArduinoJson/MsgPack/MsgPackDeserializer.hpp b/src/ArduinoJson/MsgPack/MsgPackDeserializer.hpp
index 089bf496..71c52edf 100644
--- a/src/ArduinoJson/MsgPack/MsgPackDeserializer.hpp
+++ b/src/ArduinoJson/MsgPack/MsgPackDeserializer.hpp
@@ -435,7 +435,7 @@ class MsgPackDeserializer {
 
       if (memberFilter.allow()) {
         ARDUINOJSON_ASSERT(array != 0);
-        value = array->addElement(_pool);
+        value = collectionAddElement(array, _pool);
         if (!value)
           return DeserializationError::NoMemory;
       } else {
@@ -496,11 +496,12 @@ class MsgPackDeserializer {
         // Save key in memory pool.
         key = _stringStorage.save();
 
-        VariantSlot* slot = object->addSlot(_pool);
+        VariantSlot* slot = _pool->allocVariant();
         if (!slot)
           return DeserializationError::NoMemory;
 
         slot->setKey(key);
+        object->addSlot(slot);
 
         member = slot->data();
       } else {
diff --git a/src/ArduinoJson/Object/JsonObject.hpp b/src/ArduinoJson/Object/JsonObject.hpp
index f2c73b7e..a14b76c0 100644
--- a/src/ArduinoJson/Object/JsonObject.hpp
+++ b/src/ArduinoJson/Object/JsonObject.hpp
@@ -87,17 +87,13 @@ class JsonObject : public detail::VariantOperators<JsonObject> {
   // ⚠️ Doesn't release the memory associated with the removed members.
   // https://arduinojson.org/v6/api/jsonobject/clear/
   void clear() const {
-    if (!_data)
-      return;
-    _data->clear();
+    collectionClear(_data, _pool);
   }
 
   // Copies an object.
   // https://arduinojson.org/v6/api/jsonobject/set/
   FORCE_INLINE bool set(JsonObjectConst src) {
-    if (!_data || !src._data)
-      return false;
-    return _data->copyFrom(*src._data, _pool);
+    return collectionCopy(_data, src._data, _pool);
   }
 
   // Compares the content of two objects.
@@ -129,9 +125,7 @@ class JsonObject : public detail::VariantOperators<JsonObject> {
   // ⚠️ Doesn't release the memory associated with the removed member.
   // https://arduinojson.org/v6/api/jsonobject/remove/
   FORCE_INLINE void remove(iterator it) const {
-    if (!_data)
-      return;
-    _data->removeSlot(it._slot);
+    collectionRemove(_data, it._slot, _pool);
   }
 
   // Removes the member with the specified key.
@@ -139,7 +133,7 @@ class JsonObject : public detail::VariantOperators<JsonObject> {
   // https://arduinojson.org/v6/api/jsonobject/remove/
   template <typename TString>
   FORCE_INLINE void remove(const TString& key) const {
-    removeMember(detail::adaptString(key));
+    collectionRemoveMember(_data, detail::adaptString(key), _pool);
   }
 
   // Removes the member with the specified key.
@@ -147,7 +141,7 @@ class JsonObject : public detail::VariantOperators<JsonObject> {
   // https://arduinojson.org/v6/api/jsonobject/remove/
   template <typename TChar>
   FORCE_INLINE void remove(TChar* key) const {
-    removeMember(detail::adaptString(key));
+    collectionRemoveMember(_data, detail::adaptString(key), _pool);
   }
 
   // Returns true if the object contains the specified key.
@@ -214,9 +208,7 @@ class JsonObject : public detail::VariantOperators<JsonObject> {
 
   template <typename TAdaptedString>
   void removeMember(TAdaptedString key) const {
-    if (!_data)
-      return;
-    _data->removeMember(key);
+    collectionRemove(_data, _data->getSlot(key), _pool);
   }
 
   detail::CollectionData* _data;
diff --git a/src/ArduinoJson/Variant/ConverterImpl.hpp b/src/ArduinoJson/Variant/ConverterImpl.hpp
index 8095cc30..32bdc9ee 100644
--- a/src/ArduinoJson/Variant/ConverterImpl.hpp
+++ b/src/ArduinoJson/Variant/ConverterImpl.hpp
@@ -42,10 +42,8 @@ struct Converter<
                                   !detail::is_same<char, T>::value>::type>
     : private detail::VariantAttorney {
   static void toJson(T src, JsonVariant dst) {
-    auto data = getData(dst);
     ARDUINOJSON_ASSERT_INTEGER_TYPE_IS_SUPPORTED(T);
-    if (data)
-      data->setInteger(src);
+    variantSetInteger(getData(dst), src, getPool(dst));
   }
 
   static T fromJson(JsonVariantConst src) {
@@ -81,9 +79,7 @@ struct Converter<T, typename detail::enable_if<detail::is_enum<T>::value>::type>
 template <>
 struct Converter<bool> : private detail::VariantAttorney {
   static void toJson(bool src, JsonVariant dst) {
-    auto data = getData(dst);
-    if (data)
-      data->setBoolean(src);
+    variantSetBoolean(getData(dst), src, getPool(dst));
   }
 
   static bool fromJson(JsonVariantConst src) {
@@ -102,9 +98,7 @@ struct Converter<
     T, typename detail::enable_if<detail::is_floating_point<T>::value>::type>
     : private detail::VariantAttorney {
   static void toJson(T src, JsonVariant dst) {
-    auto data = getData(dst);
-    if (data)
-      data->setFloat(static_cast<JsonFloat>(src));
+    variantSetFloat(getData(dst), static_cast<JsonFloat>(src), getPool(dst));
   }
 
   static T fromJson(JsonVariantConst src) {
@@ -165,9 +159,7 @@ template <>
 struct Converter<SerializedValue<const char*>>
     : private detail::VariantAttorney {
   static void toJson(SerializedValue<const char*> src, JsonVariant dst) {
-    auto data = getData(dst);
-    if (data)
-      data->setLinkedRaw(src);
+    variantSetLinkedRaw(getData(dst), src, getPool(dst));
   }
 };
 
@@ -180,17 +172,14 @@ struct Converter<
     typename detail::enable_if<!detail::is_same<const char*, T>::value>::type>
     : private detail::VariantAttorney {
   static void toJson(SerializedValue<T> src, JsonVariant dst) {
-    auto data = getData(dst);
-    auto pool = getPool(dst);
-    if (data)
-      data->storeOwnedRaw(src, pool);
+    variantSetOwnedRaw(getData(dst), src, getPool(dst));
   }
 };
 
 template <>
 struct Converter<decltype(nullptr)> : private detail::VariantAttorney {
   static void toJson(decltype(nullptr), JsonVariant dst) {
-    variantSetNull(getData(dst));
+    variantSetNull(getData(dst), getPool(dst));
   }
   static decltype(nullptr) fromJson(JsonVariantConst) {
     return nullptr;
diff --git a/src/ArduinoJson/Variant/SlotFunctions.hpp b/src/ArduinoJson/Variant/SlotFunctions.hpp
index 29102c92..efa3f76e 100644
--- a/src/ArduinoJson/Variant/SlotFunctions.hpp
+++ b/src/ArduinoJson/Variant/SlotFunctions.hpp
@@ -21,4 +21,10 @@ inline size_t slotSize(const VariantSlot* var) {
 inline VariantData* slotData(VariantSlot* slot) {
   return reinterpret_cast<VariantData*>(slot);
 }
+
+inline void slotRelease(const VariantSlot* slot, MemoryPool* pool) {
+  ARDUINOJSON_ASSERT(slot != nullptr);
+  variantRelease(slot->data(), pool);
+}
+
 ARDUINOJSON_END_PRIVATE_NAMESPACE
diff --git a/src/ArduinoJson/Variant/VariantData.hpp b/src/ArduinoJson/Variant/VariantData.hpp
index b61774d1..cfc8af41 100644
--- a/src/ArduinoJson/Variant/VariantData.hpp
+++ b/src/ArduinoJson/Variant/VariantData.hpp
@@ -4,7 +4,6 @@
 
 #pragma once
 
-#include <ArduinoJson/Memory/MemoryPool.hpp>
 #include <ArduinoJson/Misc/SerializedValue.hpp>
 #include <ArduinoJson/Numbers/convertNumber.hpp>
 #include <ArduinoJson/Strings/JsonString.hpp>
@@ -20,6 +19,10 @@ class VariantData {
  public:
   VariantData() : _flags(VALUE_IS_NULL) {}
 
+  void reset() {
+    _flags = VALUE_IS_NULL;
+  }
+
   void operator=(const VariantData& src) {
     _content = src._content;
     _flags = uint8_t((_flags & OWNED_KEY_BIT) | (src._flags & ~OWNED_KEY_BIT));
@@ -68,9 +71,17 @@ class VariantData {
   T asFloat() const;
 
   JsonString asString() const;
+  JsonString asRaw() const;
 
   bool asBoolean() const;
 
+  const char* getOwnedString() const {
+    if (_flags & OWNED_VALUE_BIT)
+      return _content.asString.data;
+    else
+      return nullptr;
+  }
+
   CollectionData* asArray() {
     return isArray() ? &_content.asCollection : 0;
   }
@@ -91,8 +102,6 @@ class VariantData {
     return const_cast<VariantData*>(this)->asObject();
   }
 
-  bool copyFrom(const VariantData& src, MemoryPool* pool);
-
   bool isArray() const {
     return (_flags & VALUE_IS_ARRAY) != 0;
   }
@@ -139,17 +148,6 @@ class VariantData {
     return !isFloat();
   }
 
-  void remove(size_t index) {
-    if (isArray())
-      _content.asCollection.removeElement(index);
-  }
-
-  template <typename TAdaptedString>
-  void remove(TAdaptedString key) {
-    if (isObject())
-      _content.asCollection.removeMember(key);
-  }
-
   void setBoolean(bool value) {
     setType(VALUE_IS_BOOLEAN);
     _content.asBoolean = value;
@@ -160,28 +158,16 @@ class VariantData {
     _content.asFloat = value;
   }
 
-  void setLinkedRaw(SerializedValue<const char*> value) {
-    if (value.data()) {
-      setType(VALUE_IS_LINKED_RAW);
-      _content.asString.data = value.data();
-      _content.asString.size = value.size();
-    } else {
-      setType(VALUE_IS_NULL);
-    }
+  void setLinkedRaw(const char* data, size_t n) {
+    setType(VALUE_IS_LINKED_RAW);
+    _content.asString.data = data;
+    _content.asString.size = n;
   }
 
-  template <typename T>
-  bool storeOwnedRaw(SerializedValue<T> value, MemoryPool* pool) {
-    const char* dup = pool->saveString(adaptString(value.data(), value.size()));
-    if (dup) {
-      setType(VALUE_IS_OWNED_RAW);
-      _content.asString.data = dup;
-      _content.asString.size = value.size();
-      return true;
-    } else {
-      setType(VALUE_IS_NULL);
-      return false;
-    }
+  void setOwnedRaw(const char* data, size_t n) {
+    setType(VALUE_IS_OWNED_RAW);
+    _content.asString.data = data;
+    _content.asString.size = n;
   }
 
   template <typename T>
@@ -239,42 +225,17 @@ class VariantData {
     return isCollection() ? _content.asCollection.size() : 0;
   }
 
-  VariantData* addElement(MemoryPool* pool) {
-    if (isNull())
-      toArray();
-    if (!isArray())
-      return 0;
-    return _content.asCollection.addElement(pool);
-  }
-
   VariantData* getElement(size_t index) const {
     const CollectionData* col = asArray();
     return col ? col->getElement(index) : 0;
   }
 
-  VariantData* getOrAddElement(size_t index, MemoryPool* pool) {
-    if (isNull())
-      toArray();
-    if (!isArray())
-      return 0;
-    return _content.asCollection.getOrAddElement(index, pool);
-  }
-
   template <typename TAdaptedString>
   VariantData* getMember(TAdaptedString key) const {
     const CollectionData* col = asObject();
     return col ? col->getMember(key) : 0;
   }
 
-  template <typename TAdaptedString>
-  VariantData* getOrAddMember(TAdaptedString key, MemoryPool* pool) {
-    if (isNull())
-      toObject();
-    if (!isObject())
-      return 0;
-    return _content.asCollection.getOrAddMember(key, pool);
-  }
-
   void movePointers(ptrdiff_t variantDistance) {
     if (_flags & COLLECTION_MASK)
       _content.asCollection.movePointers(variantDistance);
diff --git a/src/ArduinoJson/Variant/VariantFunctions.hpp b/src/ArduinoJson/Variant/VariantFunctions.hpp
index 6191b650..6ccfad1f 100644
--- a/src/ArduinoJson/Variant/VariantFunctions.hpp
+++ b/src/ArduinoJson/Variant/VariantFunctions.hpp
@@ -4,6 +4,7 @@
 
 #pragma once
 
+#include <ArduinoJson/Polyfills/assert.hpp>
 #include <ArduinoJson/Polyfills/attributes.hpp>
 #include <ArduinoJson/Strings/StoragePolicy.hpp>
 #include <ArduinoJson/Variant/VariantData.hpp>
@@ -11,6 +12,16 @@
 
 ARDUINOJSON_BEGIN_PRIVATE_NAMESPACE
 
+void slotRelease(const VariantSlot* slot, MemoryPool* pool);
+bool collectionCopy(CollectionData* dst, const CollectionData* src,
+                    MemoryPool* pool);
+VariantData* collectionAddElement(CollectionData* array, MemoryPool* pool);
+void collectionRemoveElement(CollectionData* data, size_t index,
+                             MemoryPool* pool);
+template <typename TAdaptedString>
+void collectionRemoveMember(CollectionData* data, TAdaptedString key,
+                            MemoryPool* pool);
+
 template <typename TVisitor>
 inline typename TVisitor::result_type variantAccept(const VariantData* var,
                                                     TVisitor& visitor) {
@@ -20,6 +31,15 @@ inline typename TVisitor::result_type variantAccept(const VariantData* var,
     return visitor.visitNull();
 }
 
+inline void variantRelease(const VariantData* var, MemoryPool* pool) {
+  ARDUINOJSON_ASSERT(var != nullptr);
+  auto c = var->asCollection();
+  if (c) {
+    for (auto slot = c->head(); slot; slot = slot->next())
+      slotRelease(slot, pool);
+  }
+}
+
 inline bool variantCopyFrom(VariantData* dst, const VariantData* src,
                             MemoryPool* pool) {
   if (!dst)
@@ -28,20 +48,69 @@ inline bool variantCopyFrom(VariantData* dst, const VariantData* src,
     dst->setNull();
     return true;
   }
-  return dst->copyFrom(*src, pool);
+  switch (src->type()) {
+    case VALUE_IS_ARRAY:
+      return collectionCopy(&dst->toArray(), src->asArray(), pool);
+    case VALUE_IS_OBJECT:
+      return collectionCopy(&dst->toObject(), src->asObject(), pool);
+    case VALUE_IS_OWNED_STRING: {
+      auto str = adaptString(src->asString());
+      auto dup = storeString(pool, str, StringStoragePolicy::Copy());
+      if (!dup)
+        return false;
+      dst->setString(dup);
+      return true;
+    }
+    case VALUE_IS_OWNED_RAW: {
+      auto str = adaptString(src->asRaw());
+      auto dup = storeString(pool, str, StringStoragePolicy::Copy());
+      if (!dup)
+        return false;
+      dst->setOwnedRaw(dup.c_str(), str.size());
+      return true;
+    }
+    default:
+      *dst = *src;
+      return true;
+  }
 }
 
-inline void variantSetNull(VariantData* var) {
+inline void variantSetNull(VariantData* var, MemoryPool* pool) {
   if (!var)
     return;
+  variantRelease(var, pool);
   var->setNull();
 }
 
+inline void variantSetBoolean(VariantData* var, bool value, MemoryPool* pool) {
+  if (!var)
+    return;
+  variantRelease(var, pool);
+  var->setBoolean(value);
+}
+
+inline void variantSetFloat(VariantData* var, JsonFloat value,
+                            MemoryPool* pool) {
+  if (!var)
+    return;
+  variantRelease(var, pool);
+  var->setFloat(value);
+}
+
+template <typename T>
+inline void variantSetInteger(VariantData* var, T value, MemoryPool* pool) {
+  if (!var)
+    return;
+  variantRelease(var, pool);
+  var->setInteger(value);
+}
+
 template <typename TAdaptedString>
 inline void variantSetString(VariantData* var, TAdaptedString value,
                              MemoryPool* pool) {
   if (!var)
     return;
+  variantRelease(var, pool);
   JsonString str = storeString(pool, value);
   if (str)
     var->setString(str);
@@ -49,19 +118,46 @@ inline void variantSetString(VariantData* var, TAdaptedString value,
     var->setNull();
 }
 
+template <typename T>
+inline void variantSetOwnedRaw(VariantData* var, SerializedValue<T> value,
+                               MemoryPool* pool) {
+  if (!var)
+    return;
+  variantRelease(var, pool);
+  const char* dup = pool->saveString(adaptString(value.data(), value.size()));
+  if (dup)
+    var->setOwnedRaw(dup, value.size());
+  else
+    var->setNull();
+}
+
+inline void variantSetLinkedRaw(VariantData* var,
+                                SerializedValue<const char*> value,
+                                MemoryPool* pool) {
+  if (!var)
+    return;
+  variantRelease(var, pool);
+  if (value.data())
+    var->setLinkedRaw(value.data(), value.size());
+  else
+    var->setNull();
+}
+
 inline size_t variantSize(const VariantData* var) {
   return var != 0 ? var->size() : 0;
 }
 
-inline CollectionData* variantToArray(VariantData* var) {
+inline CollectionData* variantToArray(VariantData* var, MemoryPool* pool) {
   if (!var)
     return 0;
+  variantRelease(var, pool);
   return &var->toArray();
 }
 
-inline CollectionData* variantToObject(VariantData* var) {
+inline CollectionData* variantToObject(VariantData* var, MemoryPool* pool) {
   if (!var)
     return 0;
+  variantRelease(var, pool);
   return &var->toObject();
 }
 
@@ -69,15 +165,43 @@ inline VariantData* variantGetElement(const VariantData* var, size_t index) {
   return var != 0 ? var->getElement(index) : 0;
 }
 
-inline NO_INLINE VariantData* variantAddElement(VariantData* var,
-                                                MemoryPool* pool) {
-  return var != 0 ? var->addElement(pool) : 0;
+inline VariantData* variantAddElement(VariantData* var, MemoryPool* pool) {
+  if (!var)
+    return nullptr;
+  auto array = var->isNull() ? &var->toArray() : var->asArray();
+  return collectionAddElement(array, pool);
 }
 
 inline NO_INLINE VariantData* variantGetOrAddElement(VariantData* var,
                                                      size_t index,
                                                      MemoryPool* pool) {
-  return var != 0 ? var->getOrAddElement(index, pool) : 0;
+  if (!var)
+    return nullptr;
+  auto array = var->isNull() ? &var->toArray() : var->asArray();
+  if (!array)
+    return nullptr;
+  VariantSlot* slot = array->head();
+  while (slot && index > 0) {
+    slot = slot->next();
+    index--;
+  }
+  if (!slot)
+    index++;
+  while (index > 0) {
+    slot = pool->allocVariant();
+    if (!slot)
+      return nullptr;
+    array->addSlot(slot);
+    index--;
+  }
+  return slot->data();
+}
+
+inline void variantRemoveElement(VariantData* var, size_t index,
+                                 MemoryPool* pool) {
+  if (!var)
+    return;
+  collectionRemoveElement(var->asArray(), index, pool);
 }
 
 template <typename TAdaptedString>
@@ -90,9 +214,23 @@ VariantData* variantGetMember(const VariantData* var, TAdaptedString key) {
 template <typename TAdaptedString>
 VariantData* variantGetOrAddMember(VariantData* var, TAdaptedString key,
                                    MemoryPool* pool) {
+  if (!var || key.isNull())
+    return nullptr;
+  auto obj = var->isNull() ? &var->toObject() : var->asObject();
+  if (!obj)
+    return nullptr;
+  auto slot = obj->getSlot(key);
+  if (slot)
+    return slot->data();
+  return collectionAddMember(obj, key, pool);
+}
+
+template <typename TAdaptedString>
+void variantRemoveMember(VariantData* var, TAdaptedString key,
+                         MemoryPool* pool) {
   if (!var)
-    return 0;
-  return var->getOrAddMember(key, pool);
+    return;
+  collectionRemoveMember(var->asObject(), key, pool);
 }
 
 inline bool variantIsNull(const VariantData* var) {
diff --git a/src/ArduinoJson/Variant/VariantImpl.hpp b/src/ArduinoJson/Variant/VariantImpl.hpp
index fdf5585c..ef5c4ab8 100644
--- a/src/ArduinoJson/Variant/VariantImpl.hpp
+++ b/src/ArduinoJson/Variant/VariantImpl.hpp
@@ -83,26 +83,16 @@ inline JsonString VariantData::asString() const {
   }
 }
 
-inline bool VariantData::copyFrom(const VariantData& src, MemoryPool* pool) {
-  switch (src.type()) {
-    case VALUE_IS_ARRAY:
-      return toArray().copyFrom(src._content.asCollection, pool);
-    case VALUE_IS_OBJECT:
-      return toObject().copyFrom(src._content.asCollection, pool);
-    case VALUE_IS_OWNED_STRING: {
-      auto str = storeString(pool, adaptString(src.asString()),
-                             StringStoragePolicy::Copy());
-      setString(str);
-      return !str.isNull();
-    }
+inline JsonString VariantData::asRaw() const {
+  switch (type()) {
+    case VALUE_IS_LINKED_RAW:
+      return JsonString(_content.asString.data, _content.asString.size,
+                        JsonString::Linked);
     case VALUE_IS_OWNED_RAW:
-      return storeOwnedRaw(
-          serialized(src._content.asString.data, src._content.asString.size),
-          pool);
+      return JsonString(_content.asString.data, _content.asString.size,
+                        JsonString::Copied);
     default:
-      setType(src.type());
-      _content = src._content;
-      return true;
+      return JsonString();
   }
 }
 
@@ -126,21 +116,21 @@ template <typename TDerived>
 template <typename T>
 inline typename enable_if<is_same<T, JsonArray>::value, JsonArray>::type
 VariantRefBase<TDerived>::to() const {
-  return JsonArray(getPool(), variantToArray(getOrCreateData()));
+  return JsonArray(getPool(), variantToArray(getOrCreateData(), getPool()));
 }
 
 template <typename TDerived>
 template <typename T>
 typename enable_if<is_same<T, JsonObject>::value, JsonObject>::type
 VariantRefBase<TDerived>::to() const {
-  return JsonObject(getPool(), variantToObject(getOrCreateData()));
+  return JsonObject(getPool(), variantToObject(getOrCreateData(), getPool()));
 }
 
 template <typename TDerived>
 template <typename T>
 typename enable_if<is_same<T, JsonVariant>::value, JsonVariant>::type
 VariantRefBase<TDerived>::to() const {
-  variantSetNull(getOrCreateData());
+  variantSetNull(getOrCreateData(), getPool());
   return *this;
 }
 
diff --git a/src/ArduinoJson/Variant/VariantRefBase.hpp b/src/ArduinoJson/Variant/VariantRefBase.hpp
index 2afdda6a..55ed788d 100644
--- a/src/ArduinoJson/Variant/VariantRefBase.hpp
+++ b/src/ArduinoJson/Variant/VariantRefBase.hpp
@@ -30,7 +30,7 @@ class VariantRefBase : public VariantTag {
   // ⚠️ Doesn't release the memory associated with the previous value.
   // https://arduinojson.org/v6/api/jsonvariant/clear/
   FORCE_INLINE void clear() const {
-    variantSetNull(getData());
+    variantSetNull(getOrCreateData(), getPool());
   }
 
   // Returns true if the value is null or the reference is unbound.
@@ -112,11 +112,10 @@ class VariantRefBase : public VariantTag {
     VariantData* data = getOrCreateData();
     if (!data)
       return;
+    variantSetNull(data, getPool());
     const VariantData* targetData = VariantAttorney::getData(target);
     if (targetData)
       *data = *targetData;
-    else
-      data->setNull();
   }
 
   // Copies the specified value.
@@ -179,9 +178,7 @@ class VariantRefBase : public VariantTag {
   // ⚠️ Doesn't release the memory associated with the removed element.
   // https://arduinojson.org/v6/api/jsonvariant/remove/
   FORCE_INLINE void remove(size_t index) const {
-    VariantData* data = getData();
-    if (data)
-      data->remove(index);
+    variantRemoveElement(getData(), index, getPool());
   }
 
   // Removes a member of the object.
@@ -190,9 +187,7 @@ class VariantRefBase : public VariantTag {
   template <typename TChar>
   FORCE_INLINE typename enable_if<IsString<TChar*>::value>::type remove(
       TChar* key) const {
-    VariantData* data = getData();
-    if (data)
-      data->remove(adaptString(key));
+    variantRemoveMember(getData(), adaptString(key), getPool());
   }
 
   // Removes a member of the object.
@@ -201,9 +196,7 @@ class VariantRefBase : public VariantTag {
   template <typename TString>
   FORCE_INLINE typename enable_if<IsString<TString>::value>::type remove(
       const TString& key) const {
-    VariantData* data = getData();
-    if (data)
-      data->remove(adaptString(key));
+    variantRemoveMember(getData(), adaptString(key), getPool());
   }
 
   // Creates an array and appends it to the array.